The idea of affluence has become very popular in America today. So many are trying to become famous, any way they can, to achieve wealth. Several people have forgotten about the traditional, conservative way of obtaining wealth. A vast amount of wealthy people are college-educated, nearly exclusively in elite institutions. Two-thirds of those we interviewed had earned advanced degrees, most often MBAs but also JDs, MAs in various fields, and PhDs. They worked hard or had worked hard in finance, corporate law, real estate, advertising, academia, nonprofits, the arts, and fashion.  A small percentage of affluent women leave their full-times jobs to take care of children. These well-educated people tend to share a few characteristics. They have higher levels of cultural capital, tend to be Worldly and culturally curious, and have a passion for fine art, fashion, architecture and automobile design and technology. Travel is also important to this group and many of them have an affinity for material goods. One of the benefits that comes along with being in this elite club is not only their legacies, but also because many are considered employed in affinity careers, they tend to have lower auto insurance rates because people in this class file insurance claims less often, if ever. This class of people tends to live in suburban homes, spacious urban apartments (often renovated to combine two or three original units), townhouses, Victorian homes, and have second homes in affluent suburban communities. Their homes are traditionally decorated with antique furniture and spaces for formal entertainment; or some prefer more modern design concepts with sleek lines and sharp angles. A portion of these elite individual also cherish country homes surrounded by outdoor space. #RandolphHarris 1 of 20

Feature in their dwellings is furniture designed by famous makers and often times valuable contemporary art. Several of these home owners enjoyed open kitchens, often outfitted with white Carrara marble or handmade tiles; along with handcrafted dining room takes. Spa inspired bathrooms with soaking tubs, steam showers, living rooms decorated in palettes of gold and white, or blue and green with wood accents and feature ceilings, with sophisticated chandeliers and fancy wall sconces were common. In addition to bedrooms with expansive views of a lavish garden, the city or river, and brightly decorated children’s play rooms. Because many of the children were close in age, they had a tendency to have homes with large bedrooms, enough for everyone to have their own room, but the children often liked to share a room with their siblings. It was very impressive how customized these homes were and obvious that these home buyers had sat down with an agent and discussed the types of spaces they needed and what they wanted to do with these spaces. In the planning came things like deciding whether they wanted a “Super Great Room” or 7^th bedroom, formal dining room or a den, a loft of 6^th bedroom suite, and office of 4^th bedroom. Where they lived with connected to a whole host of larger questions, who was the builder of the home, where homebuyers worked, where their children would go to school, and where they spent time on the weekends. Their homes were also customized aesthetically, too, seeking to express their individual styles through their choice of sofas, dining tables, wall features, faucets, paint colours, flooring, cabinets, appliance, countertops and so forth. #RandolphHarris 2 of 20

One man in particular, Lawrence had been self-conscious about his wealth since he was a child. He recalled feeling sensitive to comments classmates and others would make about the size of his family’s house. He felt like it was something to hide. In college, he tried to hide his background as much as possible, but classmate ended up finding out that he was secretly rich and teased him about his family’s wealth. His wife Bianca felt uncomfortable having married into wealth. Although she felt that it was easy to spend money on philanthropy, she felt guilty about spending money on herself.  Another fear of theirs was their children and instilling in them the desire to work hard. When I was interviewing Lawrence, he and his wife had some disharmony about renovations of their home worth $5 million, which they had built so their children could grow up in a decent community, which was mixed with working class families and middle-class families, as well as the wealthy. However, they felt unhappy about living there. The house was a panorama of opulence and marble and other aesthetic features Bianca hated. The conflict was traumatizing and destabilized their marriage, and it resulted in the couple selling their home and buying two separate homes next door to each other. Their struggle was also partly about the visibility of their wealth. Bianca explained that their annual spending had reached nearly a million dollars, not only because of their lifestyle, but because one of their children had special needs, and because of the cost of lawyers, family vacations, education and other business expenses. #RandolphHarris 3 of 20

The couple had fascinating conflicts, was it okay to buy Japanese and German cars? Is spending one thousand on a suit and five hundred of shoes acceptable? Did having thirty-five-hundred-dollar wheels on a car too gaudy? Or was it acceptable to spend half a million dollars renovating a home? Maintaining these lifestyles required a considerable amount of work. All the interviewees had hired expert service providers, including, for example, financial advisors, architect, interior designers, real estate brokers, personal chefs, and personal assistant. Even their teenager children had more than one financial planner, investments and new cars, after driving their parents’ cars for a few years. Therefore, it was not uncommon for kids to start off driving sports cars or luxury sedans. In the interviews, most people described themselves as reluctant to talk about money in detail with anyone except their partners. They described money as deeply private. Bianca, an academia whose husband had inherited wealth, said there was too much stigma in “our culture” discussing money. She refused to speak of her family’s net worth saying, “I do not think I can say. I’m sorry. I just feel like that is too private and he would hit the roof.” Many people also underrepresented their wealth. They were underreporting their income and/or assets, whereas I never suspected they were exaggerating. Their children did the same. How on Earth does a high school student make nearly seventy thousand dollars legally? Although it is suspected that that was only half of it. Bianca, who was a stay-at-home mother whose husband was a technology executive, was uncomfortable talking about her husband’s income. She said he made “A million plus.” Later in the interview, she corrected herself to say that her second home had cost $250,000 more than she had originally told people. #RandolphHarris 4 of 20

For the people I walked with, their general norm of civility—not talking about money, not “showing off,” treating others as one wants to be treated—were also mechanisms for silencing and obscuring their own privilege, to others and sometimes to themselves. At the same time, however, the interviewees did recognize that they were privileged, which seemed to spark a lot of envy from the local police department. So, although they were silent with others, they struggled with themselves over the question of how to be worthy of this privilege in a moral sense. In order to feel that they deserved their advantages, they tried to interpret themselves as “good people.” Can you believe that the local police department was so jealous that they even pulled a home invasion on duty and kidnapped someone’s child and held him hostage? The truth is more stranger than fiction, but it is not the first time that a wealthy person has had their child kidnapped and held hostage by a political group. The only difference is when the police do it, they often go unpunished because of the growing anger over income inequality, and beauty. This is why the medieval Church stressed the dignity of man, the freedom of his will, and the fact that his efforts were of avail; it stressed the likeness between God and man and also man’s right to be confident of God’s love. Men were felt to be equal and brothers in their very likeness to God. In the late Middle Ages, in connection with the beginning of capitalism, bewilderment and insecurity arose; but at the same time tendencies that emphasized the role of will and human effort became increasingly stronger. We may assume that both the philosophy of the Renaissance and the Catholic doctrine of the late Middle Ages reflected the spirit prevailing in those social groups whose economic position gave them a feeling of power and independence. #RandolphHarris 5 of 20

On the other hand, Mr. Luther’s theology gave expression to the feeling of the middle class which, fighting against the authority of the Church and resenting the new moneyed class, felt threatened by rising capitalism and overcome by a feeling of powerlessness and individual insignificance. Mr. Luther’s system, in so far as it differed from the Catholic tradition, has two sides, one of which has been stressed more than the other in the picture of his doctrines which is usually given in Protestant countries. This aspect points out that he gave man independence in religious matter; that he deprived the Church of her authority and gave it to the individual; that his concept of faith and salvation is one of subjective individual experience, in which all responsibility is with the individual and none with an authority which could give him what he cannot obtain himself. There are good reasons to praise this side of Mr. Luther’s and Mr. Calin’s doctrines, sine they are one source of the development of political and spiritual freedom in modern society; a development which, especially in Anglo-Saxon countries, is inseparably connected with the ideas of Puritanism. The other aspect of modern freedom is the isolation and powerlessness it has brought for the individual, and this aspect has its roots in Protestantism as much as that of independence. This is why freedom can be seen as a burden, it was been the theme since Adam and Eve. As soon as they acted on their free will, they became cursed. People often ask “Why is life so hard?” well, it is because humans lack self-control. They are not willing to obey God and allow life to be a paradise. Mr. Luther and Mr. Calvin’s doctrines in which this negative aspect of freedom is rooted: their emphasis on the fundamental evilness and powerlessness of man. #RandolphHarris 6 of 20

Mr. Luther assumed the existence of an innate evilness in man’s nature, which directs his will for evil and makes it impossible for any man to perform any good deed on the basis of his nature. Man has an evil and vicious nature (“naturaliter et inevitbiliter mala et vitiate natura”). The depravity of man’s nature and its complete lack of freedom to choose the right one of the fundamental concepts of Mr. Luther’s whole thinking. In this spirit he begins his comments on Paul’s letter to the Romans: “The essence of this letter is: to destroy, to uproot, and to annihilate all wisdom and justice of the flesh, may it appear—in our eyes and in those of others—ever so remarkable and sincere…What matters is that our justice and wisdom which unfold before our eyes are being destroyed and uprooted from our heart and from our vain self.” This conviction of man’s rottenness and powerlessness to do anything good on his own merits is one essential condition of God’s grace. Only if man humiliates himself and demolishes his individual will and pride will God’s grace descend upon him. “For God wants to save us not by our own but by extraneous (fremde) justice and wisdom, by a justice that does not come from ourselves and does not originate in ourselves but comes to us from somewhere else…That is, a justice must be taught that comes exclusively from the outside and is entirely alien to ourselves.” An even more radial expression of man’s powerlessness was given by Mr. Luther seven years later in his pamphlet “De servo arbitrio,” which was an attack against Erasmus’ defense of the freedom of the will. “…Thus the human will is, as it were, a beast before thee, nevertheless I am continually with thee.’ (Ps. 73. 22, 23.) If Satan sit thereon, it wills and goes as Satan will. Nor is it in the power of its own will to choose, to which rider it will run, nor which it will seek; but the riders themselves content, which shall have and hold it.” #RandolphHarris 7 of 20

Mr. Luther declares that if one does not like “to leave out this theme (of free will) altogether (which would be most safe and also most religious) we may, nevertheless, with a good conscience teach that it be used so far as to allow man a ‘free will,’ not in respect of those who are above him, but in respect only of those beings who are below him…God-ward man has ‘no free will,’ but is a captive, slave, and servant either to the will of God or to the will of Satan.” The doctrines that man was a powerless tool in God’s hands and fundamentally evil, that his only task was to resign to the will of God, that God could save him as the result of an incomprehensible act of justice—these doctrines were not the definite answers a man was to give who was so much driven by despair, anxiety, and doubt and at the same time by such as ardent wish for certainty as Mr. Luther. He eventually found the answer for his doubt. In 1518 a sudden revelation came to him. Man cannot be saved on the basis of his virtues; he should not even meditate whether or not his works were well pleasing to God; but he can have certainty of his salvation if he has faith. Faith is given to man by God; once man has had the indubitable subjective experience of faith, he can also be certain of his salvation. The individual is essentially receptive in this relationship to God. Once man received God’s grace in the experience of faith his nature becomes changed, since in the act of faith he unites himself with Christ, and Christ’s justice replaces his own which was lost by Adam’s fall. However, man can never become entirely virtuous during his life, since his natural evilness can never entirely disappear. #RandolphHarris 8 of 20

Mr. Luther’s doctrine of faith as an indubitable subjective experience of one’s own salvation may at first glance strike one as an extreme contradiction to the intense feeling of doubt which was characteristic for his personality and his teachings up to 1518. Yet, psychologically, this change from doubt to certainty, far from being contradictory, has a casual relation. We must remember what has been said about the nature of this doubt: it was not the rational doubt which is rooted in the freedom of thinking and which dares to question established views It was the irrational doubt which springs from the isolation and powerlessness of an individual whose attitude toward the World is one of anxiety and hated. This irrational doubt can never be cured by rational answers; it can only disappear if the individual becomes an integral part of a meaningful World. If this does not happen, as it did not happen with Mr. Luther and the middle class which he represented, the doubt can only be silenced, driven underground, so to speak, and this can be done by some formula which promises absolute certainty. The compulsive quest for certainty, as we find with Mr. Luther, is not the expression of genuine faith but is rooted in the need to conquer the unbearable doubt. Mr. Luther’s solution is one which we find present in many individuals today, who do not think in theological terms: namely to find certainty by elimination of the isolated individual self, by becoming an instrument in the hands of an overwhelmingly strong power outside of the individual. #RandolphHarris 9 of 20

For Mr. Luther, this power was God and in unqualified submission he sought certainty. However, although he thus succeeded in silencing his doubts to some extent, they never really disappeared; up to his last day he had attacks of doubt which he had to conquer by renewed efforts toward submission. Psychologically, faith has two entirely different meanings. It can be the expression of an inner relatedness to mankind and affirmation of life; or it can be a reaction formation against a fundamental feeling of doubt, rooted in the isolation of the individual and his negative attitude toward life. Mr. Luther’s faith had that compensatory quality. It is particularly important to understand the significance of doubt and the attempts to silence it, because this is not only a problem concerning Mr. Luther’s and, and as we shall see soon, Mr. Calvin’s theology, but it has remained one of the basic problems of modern man. Doubt is the starting point of modern philosophy; the need to silence it had a most powerful stimulus on the development of modern philosophy and science. However, although many rational doubts have been solved by rational answers, the irrational doubt has not disappeared and cannot disappear as long as man has not progressed from negative freedom to positive freedom. The modern attempts to silence it, whether they consist in a compulsive striving for success, in the belief that unlimited knowledge of facts can answer the quest for certainty, or in the submission to a leader who assumes the responsibility for “certainty”—all these solutions can only eliminate the awareness of doubt. The doubt itself will not disappear as long as man does not overcome his isolation and as long as his place in the World has not become a meaningful one in terms of human needs. #RandolphHarris 10 of 20

Many people often wonder what Adam looked like, as they often wonder what Jesus looked like. I have always picture Adam as looking exactly like Michelangelo’s David, and even being 17 feet tall. David is considered by scientists to be absolute perfection of man. The application of scientific methods of historical criticism to biblical literature produced, among other results, the ill-fated search for the historical Jesus. Its failure is due not to defective methods or faulty applications of sound ones, but to the nature of the sources themselves. The gospels are reports of faith about Jesus as the Christ, not about Jesus of Nazareth. The attempts to sift fact from faith yields, at best, a sketchy, conjectural picture. The result of the search is not a picture of the so-called historical Jesus but the insight that there is no picture behind the biblical one which could be made scientifically probable. Since it is impossible to found the Christian faith upon a factual biography of Jesus, some theologians seek its historical foundation in the words of Jesus. “As teachings of Jesus, they are understood as refined interpretations of the natural law or as original insights into the nature of man.” However, though their power of expression is remarkable, they leave Jesus on the same level as the Old Testament. The latest approach to the words of Jesus, that of Mr. Bultmann, considers them not as general rules, but as a message that demands decision. However, it does not show how the requirement of deciding for the Kingdom of God can be fulfilled. Neither the teachings of Jesus nor his demands provide the power to follow Him, for that can come only from a new reality, from the New Being which is first a gift before it is a demand. #RandolphHarris 11 of 20

Much of the confusion that accompanied the search for the Jesus of history could have been dispelled by a distinction in the term “historical Jesus.” It can refer to the fragmentary and hypothetical results of historical investigation into the person behind the gospel story. It can also refer to the indispensable factual element in the Christian event which lies in the sphere of faith and cannot be touched by skepticism of critical history. Faith cannot even guarantee the name “Jesus” in respect to him who was the Christ…However, faith does guarantee the factual transformation or reality in that personal life which the New Testament expressed in its picture of Jesus as the Christ. Although the search for the historical Jesus failed to establish Christianity upon a foundation of undisputed fact, Protestantism is the first religion to subject its sacred writings to the criticism of historical method and draw out the consequences in its theology. Historical criticism enables the theologian to distinguish between the empirically historical, the legendary, and the mythological elements in the Christian Bible. This knowledge leads to a deeper insight into the growth and meaning of the Christological symbols. There are four steps in their development: the origin of the symbols in religious culture and language; the vital use of the symbols to express the question and answer of existence; their transformation when used to interpret the Christian event; and their distortion by popular superstition, abetted by theological literalism and supranaturalism. Although theology does not depend upon historical research, the latter protects it against literal and superstitious interpretations of the Christian symbols. #RandolphHarris 12 of 20

Illuminating as it is theologically, historical criticism of the Christian Bible leaves a nagging doubt in regard to faith. However, what is historical research should demonstrate that Jesus of Nazareth never lived? It is insufficient to say that historians have not yet done so and that it is very unlikely they ever will. “Not yet” and “unlikely” still leave room for doubt. If one replies that the historical foundation of Christianity is an essential element of the Christianity is an essential element of the Christian faith itself, it must be made quite clear just exactly what faith does guarantee. Faith can guarantee only its own foundation, namely, the appearance of that reality that gives birth to faith by conquering existential estrangement. Therefore, the presence of faith is identical with the presence of the New Being, and this presence is what is guaranteed by faith. For no historical criticism can question the immediate awareness of those who find themselves transformed into the state of faith. Faith is a given, not a deduction from logical or historical premises. By analogy, one must say that participation, not historical argument, guarantees the reality of the event upon which Christianity is based. By faith one is assured that in a personal life the New Being has overcome the estrangement of existence, that the New Being was and is actualized in him. However, it does not guarantee His name to be Jesus of Nazareth. That is an historical question open to historical doubt. If history provides no concrete picture of him, for faith is not founded on an abstract statement, but on a concrete encounter, how does the New Being as Christ excite faith? #RandolphHarris 13 of 20

The reality of the New Being with all his individual characteristics was experienced by the disciples. Their experience is expressed in the biblical picture of the Christ which is now the medium for the transforming power of the New Being. An analogia entis, is not a method of knowing God, but the way of talking about Him. The gospel image is the symbolic or analogical way of describing Jesus as the Christ. Consequently, the empirical traits of the biblical picture of the Christ are not guaranteed by faith, but the picture itself is guaranteed as an adequate expression of the transforming power of the New Being in Jesus as the Christ. The scriptural ground for obtaining deliverance is the truth concerning Christ’s full victory at Calvary, through which every believer can be delivered from the power of both conduct disorder and psychopathological offenders; but in actual fact the victory won at Calvary can only be applied as there is conformity to divine laws. As the deceptions of the psychopathological offender are recognized, and the will of the Christian is set to reject them, he can, on the basis of the work of Christ at Calvary as set forth in Romans 6.6-13, Colossians 2.15, 1 John 3.8 and other passages, claim his deliverance from these workings of the psychopathological offender in deception. Just as there are various degrees of deception, so there are degrees of deliverance. These vary according to the understanding of the believer, and his willingness to face all the truth about himself and all the ground given to the enemy. #RandolphHarris 14 of 20

In doing this the believer needs to have a steady grasp of his standing in Christ: as identified with Him in His death on the cross, and his union with Him in spirit in His place on the Throne; and he must “hold fast,” with steady faith-grip, the “Head,” as the One who is, by His Spirit, giving him grace and strength to recover the ground which he has ignorantly yielded to the foe. For the man himself must act to get rid of passivity; he must revoke his consent to psychopathological offenders to deceive, and by his own volition insist that they retire from the influence they have obtained by deceit. Since God will not act for him in regaining the normal condition of his outer man, nor exercise his choice for him, he must stand on the vantage ground of the Calvary victory of Christ and claim his freedom. The function of protection has long since been transformed into a concern for preventing exploitation, for safeguarding equal rights to opportunity, and lately for expansion of opportunity for free movement of men, goods, and ideas. Although it is not six generations since human slavery was abolished in America, the artificial barriers which have restricted achievement by less represented groups are progressively being leveled. The value of political and social equality bids to endow every marginalized group with full citizenship. Yet when we observe the way in which people have neglected to exercise their freedom to associate in co-operative enterprises of all kinds, we note that many find choice difficult, and multitudes participate hardly at all, save in the sense of passive drift. The value of participation has moved only a fraction of those who now possess opportunity for its realization. Nonvoters exceed those denied suffrage. Yet as adequate examples show, people’s appetite for participation can easily be stimulated to such heights that assumptions of the native capacity. #RandolphHarris 15 of 20

In the past, the personality of each individual was inherited very much as if it were a fact of nature. The widespread idea that it was of hereditary origin only amplified and confirmed the conviction of its intrinsic and unchangeable nature. Since nothing could be done about it, personality was not a problem and received little attention as an object of scientific study. The rise of experimental education and of social psychology has opened the doors of self-determination to a degree which renders obsolete the tragic conception of a man’s character as fated. Yet instead of a nobler conception of responsibility for the self, though organizing the conditions which determine the self, our theater offers the pathetic spectacle of drifting characters who are unable to establish their identity, and who regard the conditions of existence not as potential means but as excuses. People who enjoy what would once have been considered fortunate circumstances, having few external barriers to overcome, still invent imaginary psychic ills, or in a daze of pointless futility adhere to the values of their parents, or conform with a mass of suggestible others in following ephemeral fads. Although the remedy is certainly not a return to harsh patriarchal discipline, it seems not too strong a statement to describe a whole new generation as suffering from overprotection. Having freedom to choose, they have no criteria for choice. Millions seem to occupy a limbo between values indoctrinated in them by parents and values freely chosen by themselves. Without commitments to past or future, they are rudderless, other-directed, unable to design and organize a style of life which can in any determinative sense be termed a personality. #RandolphHarris 16 of 20

Without leadership by family agencies in the creation of positive values for personality, the new freedom from paternal domination can readily be replaced by a new tyranny in which more lonely crowds seek father figures. The pursuit of identity is a positive value without limit, the subjective side of any philosophy of self-government. The extent of American success in the long struggle against scarcity has not been grasped by those segments of the public who still think of education as only a process of inculcating the fundamentals for getting along in the World, or merely as the transmission of an established culture. The interpretation of education as enrichment of the appetite for new experience sets a task for schools far greater than that of traditional educational strategy. Of all the potential avenues of new experience, which one shall the student choose? Though for some, the problem is still how to get a basic education, for most it has become a matter of choosing between the many pursuits open, how to select and integrate their selection from the vast chaos of impressions which modern means of communication convey to them. How many have stuck to a wrong choice rather than renew the agonies of choosing again? Perhaps earlier than most family agencies, some public schools have recognized the peculiar current need for career guidance, but the guidance movement is still groping for an authoritative while nonauthoritarian rationale. Higher education for careers is on its way to becoming universal, before many students know why they want it. #RandolphHarris 17 of 20

Before the industrial revolution, the family was large, and life revolved around the home. Home was where work took place, where the sick were tended and where the children were educated. It was the place where the elderly were cared for. In First Wave societies, the large, extended family was the center of the social Universe. The decline of the family was a powerful institution did not begin with Jack Dayton or Seventeen magazine. It began when the industrial revolution stripped most of these functions out of the family. Work shifted to the factory or office. The sick went off to hospitals, kids to schools, couples to movie theater. The elderly went into nursing homes. What remained when all these tasks were exteriorized was the “nuclear family,” held together less by the functions its members performed as a unit than by fragile psychological bonds that are all too easily snapped. The Third Wave re-empowers the family and the home. It restores many of the lost function that once made the home so central to society. An estimated fifty million Americans now do some part of their work at home, often using computers, faxes, email, text messages, video calls, and other Third Wave technologies. Many parents are now choosing to home-school their kids, but the real change came when computers and digital screening replaced the TV and became incorporated into the entertainment and educational process. #RandolphHarris 18 of 20

As to the sick? More and more medical functions, from pregnancy testing to checking blood pressure—takes once done in hospitals or doctor’s offices—are migrating back to the home. All this points to a stronger, not weaker, home and to a stronger role for families—but families of many diverse types, some nuclear, some extended and multigenerational, some composed of remarrieds, some big, some small or childless, some in which the couple defers having children until later in life. This diversity of family structure reflects the diversity we find in the economy and culture as Second Wave mass society de-massifies. The irony is that many “family values” advocates, without knowing it, are not pushing toward a stronger family when they urge a return to the nuclear household: they are trying to restore the standardized model of the Second Wave. If we really want to strengthen family and make the home a central institution again, we must forget peripheral issues, accept diversity, and return important tasks to the household—oh, yes, and make sure the parent keeps control of the remote. American is where the future usually happens first. If we are suffering from the crash of our old institutions, we are also pioneering a new civilization. That means living with high uncertainty. It means expecting disequilibria and upset. And it means no one has the full and final truth about where we are going—or even where we should go. We need to feel our way, leaving no group behind, as we create the future in our midst. These few criteria can help us separate policies rooted in the Second Wave past from those that can help ease the way to our Third Wave future. #RandolphHarris 19 of 20

 The danger of any list of criteria, however, is that some people will be tempted to apply them literally, mechanically, even fanatically. And that is the opposite of what is required. Toleration for error, ambiguity and, above all, diversity, backed by a sense of humour and proportion, are survival necessities as we pack our kit for the amazing trip into the next millennium. As of now, individuals can choose between bilateral repeated interactions, which must be self-enforcing, and an anonymous market, which requires each trader to search for a partner, but does not have enforcement problems. The market is the outside opportunity that defines the incentive compatibility constraint for the former. If more people choose the market, it is thicker and offer better prospect for search. This tightens the incentive-compatibility constraint for bilateral relationships and therefore makes it harder to sustain self-enforcing cooperation in them. Conversely, if more people engage in reciprocal bilateral exchange, the market is thinner, bilateral exchange can be sustained more easily, and offers higher payoff. Either system can prevail in equilibrium even when it is socially less efficient. When we consider disjoint networks, which are like islands in a sea of an anonymous market, the members of each network trade only among themselves. The larger is a network, the higher is the probability of finding a trading partner, but the worse is the signal about his past behaviour. They find the equilibrium and optimal size of a network They have a richer specification of search and information flow within a network. They allow no information flows between a network and the market, yet migration can take place into and out of a network. By contrast, we may prefer disjoint networks of overlapping neighbourhoods of honesty for each other. Get ready for what could be the most exciting ride in history. #RandolphHarris 20 of 20

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We do not often think about this, but every action that we take in our lives, interdependent society—buy a house, driving to work, dropping off the children at school, getting automobile maintenance done—requires the combined efforts of countless numbers of people acting in concert to enable business to be handled successfully. If you stop and think about it, this is very risky due to the fact that people can be unreliable, and the more people we depend on, they greater the risk become. As civilization grew and became more complex, people moved to cities and organized themselves into guilds and city-states and nations. Living with more people required learning to trust in new ways, and institutions developed—through religion, markets, and the rule of law—that enabled the development of ever-more complex societies and the coordination of ever-larger networks of people. This is the process that brought us to the modern economies and societies of the twenty-first century, even as our premodern tribal instincts continue to structure modern life. During the Medieval era, Lutheranism and Calvinism came into existence. The new religions were not the religious of a wealthy upper class but of the urban middle class, the poor in the cities, and the peasants. They carried an appeal to those groups because they gave expression to a new feeling of freedom and independence as well as to the feeling of powerlessness and anxiety by which their members were pervaded. However, the new religious doctrines did more than give articulate expression to the feelings engendered by a changing economic order. By their teachings they increased them and at the same time offered solutions which enabled the individual to cope with an otherwise unbearable insecurity. #RandolphHarris 1 of 19

What the psychological analysis of doctrines can show is the subjective motivations which make a person aware of certain problems and make one seek for answers in certain directions. Any kind of thought, true or false, if it is more than a superficial conformance with conventional ideas, is motivated by the subjective needs and interests of the person who is thinking. It happens that some interests are furthered by finding the truth, others by destroying it. However, in both cases the psychological motivations are important incentives for arriving at certain conclusions. We can go even further and say that ideas which are not rooted in powerful needs of the personality will have little influence on the actions and on the whole life of the persons concerned. If we analyze religious or political doctrines with regard to their psychological significance we must differentiate between two problems. We can study the character structure of the individual who creates a new doctrine and try to understand which traits in his personality are responsible for the particular direction of his thinking. Concretely speaking, this means, for instance, that we must analyze the character structure of Mr. Luther or Mr. Calvin to find out what trends in their personality made them arrive at certain conclusions and formulate certain doctrines. The other problem is to study the psychological motives, not of the creator of a doctrine, but of the social group to which this doctrine appeals. The influence of any doctrine or idea depends on the extent to which it appeals to the psychic needs in the character structure of those whom it is addressed. Only if the idea answers powerful psychological needs of certain social groups will it become a potent force in history. #RandolphHarris 2 of 19

Both problems, the psychology of the leader and that of his followers, are, of course, closely linked with each other. If the same ideas appeal to them, their character structure must be similar in important aspects. Aside from factors such as the special talent for thinking and action on the part of the leader, his character structure will usually exhibit in a more extreme and clear-cut way the particular personality structure of those to whom his doctrines appeal; he can arrive at a clearer and more outspoken formulation of certain ideas for which his followers are already prepared psychologically. The fact that the character structure of the leader shows more sharply certain traits to be found in his followers, can be due to one of two factors or to a combination of both: first, that his social position is typical for those conditions which mold the personality of the whole group; second, that by the accidental circumstances of his upbringing and his individual experiences these same traits are developed to a marked degree which for the group result from its social position. The doctrines of Protestantism and Calvinism, we are discussing the psychological situation of the social classes to which Mr. Luther and Mr. Calvin’s ideas appealed. Mr. Luther, as a person, was a typical representative of the “authoritarian character.” Having been brought up by an unusually severe father and having experienced little love or security as a child, his personality was torn by a constant ambivalence toward authority; he hated it and rebelled against it, while at the same time he admired it and tended to submit to it. #RandolphHarris 3 of 19

During Mr. Luther’s whole life there was always one authority against which he was opposed and another which he admired—his father and his superiors in the monastery in his youth; the Pope and the princes later on. He was filled with an extreme feeling of aloneness, powerlessness, wickedness, but at the same time with a passion to dominate. He was tortured by doubts as only a compulsive character can be, and was constantly seeking for something which would give him inner security and relieve him from this torture of uncertainty. He hated others, especially the “rabble,” he hated himself, he hated life; and out of all this hatred came a passionate and desperate striving to be loved. His whole being was pervaded by fear, doubt, and inner isolation, and on this personal basis he was to become the champion of social groups which were in a very similar position psychologically. Any psychological analysis of an individual’s thoughts or of an ideology aims at the understanding of the psychological roots from which these thoughts or ideas spring. The first condition for such an analysis is to understand fully the logical context of an idea, and what its author conscious wants to say. However, we know that a person, even if he is subjectively sincere, may frequently be driven unconsciously by a motive that is different from the one he believes himself to be driven by; that he may use one concept which logically implies a certain meaning and which to him, unconsciously means something different from this “official” meaning. Furthermore, we know that he may attempt to harmonize certain contradictions in his own feeling by an ideological construction or to cover up an idea which he represses by a rationalization that expresses it very opposite. #RandolphHarris 4 of 19

The understanding of the operation of unconscious elements has taught us to be sceptical towards words and not to take them at face value. The analysis of ideas had mainly to do with two tasks: one is to determine the weight that a certain idea has in the whole of an ideological system; the second is to determine whether we deal with a rationalization that differs from the real meaning of the thoughts. An example of the first point is the following: In Mr. Hitler’s ideology, the emphasis on the injustice of the Versailles treaty plays a tremendous role, and it is truth that he was genuinely indignant at the peace treaty. However, if we analyze his whole political ideology we see that its foundations are an intense wish for power and conquest, and although he consciously gives much weight to the injustice done to Germany, actually this thought has little weight in the whole of his thinking. An example of the difference between the consciously intended meaning of a thought and its real psychological meaning can be taken from the analysis of Mr. Luther’s doctrines with which we are considering. We say that his relation to God is one of submission on the basis of man’s powerlessness. He himself speaks of this submission as a voluntary one, resulting not from fear but from love. Logically then, one might argue, this is not submission. Psychologically, however, it follows from the whole structure of Mr. Luther’s thoughts that his kind of love or faith actually is submission; that although he consciously thinks in terms of the voluntary and loving character of this “submission” to God, he is pervaded by a feeling of powerlessness and wickedness that make the nature of his relationship to God one of submission. (Exactly as masochistic dependence of one person on another consciously is frequently conceived as “love.”) #RandolphHarris 5 of 19

From the view point of psychological analysis, therefore, the objection that Mr. Luther says something different from what we believe he means (although unconsciously) has little weight. We believe that certain contradictions in his system can be understood only by the analysis of the psychological meaning of his concepts. If we want to understand what was new in the doctrines of the Reformation, we have first to consider what was essential in the theology of the medieval Church. In trying to do so, we are confronted with the same methodological difficulty which we have discussed in connection with such concepts as “medieval society” and “capitalistic society.” Just as in the economic sphere there is no sudden change from one structure to the other, so there is no such sudden change in the theological sphere wither. Certain doctrines of Mr. Luther and Mr. Calvin are so similar to those of the medieval church that it is sometimes difficult to see any essential difference between them. Like Protestantism and Calvinism, the Catholic Church has always denied that man, on the strength of his own virtues and merits alone, could find salvation, that he could do without the grace of God as an indispensable means for salvation. However, in spite of all the elements common to the old and the new theology, the spirit of the Catholic Church had been essentially different from the spirit of the Reformation, especially with regard to the problem of human dignity and freedom and the effect of man’s actions upon his own fate. #RandolphHarris 6 of 19

Certain principles were characteristic of Catholic theology in the long period prior to the Reformation: the doctrine that man’s nature, though corrupted by the sin of Adam, innately strives for the good; that man’s will is free to desire the good; that man’s own effort is of avail for his salvation; and that by the sacraments of the Church, based on the merits of Christ’s death, the sinner can be saved. However, some of the most representative theologians like Mr. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, though holding the views just mentioned, at the same time taught doctrines which were of a profoundly different spirit. However, although Mr. Aquinas teaches a doctrine of predestination, he never ceases to emphasize freedom of will as one of his fundamental doctrines. To bridge the contrast between the doctrine of freedom and that of predestination, he is obliged to use the most complicate constructions; but, although these constructions do not seem to solve the contradictions satisfactorily, he does not retreat from the doctrine of freedom of the will and of human effort, as being of avail for man’s salvation, even though the will itself may need the support of God’s grace. With regard to the latter point he says: “Whence, the predestination must strive after good works and prayer; because through these means predestination is most certainly fulfilled and therefore predestination can be furthered by creatures, but it cannot be impeded by them.” #RandolphHarris 7 of 19

On the freedom of will Mr. Aquinas says that it would contradict the essence of God’s and man’s nature to assume that man was not free to decide and that man has even the freedom to refuse the grace offered to him by God. Other theologians emphasized more than Mr. Aquinas the role of man’s effort for his salvation. According to Bonaventura, it is God’s intention to offer grace to man, but only those receive it who prepare themselves for it by their merits. This emphasis grew during the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries in the systems of Duns Scouts, Ockam, and Biel, a particularly important development for the understanding of the new spirit of the Reformation, since Mr. Luther’s attacks were directed particularly against the Schoolmen of the late Middle Ages who he called “Sau Theologen.” Duns Scotus stressed the role of the will. The will is free. Through the realization of his will man realized his individual self, and this self-realization is a supreme satisfaction to the individual. Since it is God’s command that will is an act of the individual self, even God has no direct influence on man’s decision. Biel and Ockam stress the role of man’s own merits as a condition for his salvation and although they too speak of God’s help, its basic significance as it was assumed by the older doctrines was given up by them. Biel assumes that man is free and can always turn to God, whose grace comes to his help. Ockam taught that man’s nature has not been really corrupted by sin; to him, sin is only a single act which does not change the substance of man. The Tridentinum very clearly states that the free will co-operates with God’s grace but that it can also refrain from this co-operation. #RandolphHarris 8 of 19

The picture of man, is presented by Ockam and other late Schoolmen, shows him not as the poor sinner but as a free being whose very nature makes him capable of everything good, and whose will is free from natural or any other external force. The practice of buying a letter of indulgence, which played an increasing role in the late Middle Ages, and against which one of Mr. Luther’s main attacks was directed, was related to this increasing emphasis on man’s will and the avail of his efforts. By buying the letter of indulgence from the Pope’s emissary, man was relieved from temporal punishment which was supposed to be a substitute for eternal punishment, and as Seeberg has pointed out, man had every reason to expect that he would be absolved from all sins. At first glance it may seem that this practice of buying one’s remission from the punishment of purgatory from the Pope contradicted the idea of the efficacy of man’s efforts for his salvation, because it implies a dependence on the authority of the Church and its sacraments. However, while this is true to a certain extent, it is also true that it contains a spirit of hope and security; if man could free himself from punishment so easily, then the burden of guilt was eased considerably. He could free himself from the weight of the past with relative ease and get rid of the anxiety which had haunted him. In addition to that one must not forget that according to the explicit or implicit theory of the Church, the effect of the letter of indulgence was dependent on the premise that is buyer had repented and confessed. #RandolphHarris 9 of 19

Those ideas that sharply differ from the spirit of the Reformation are also to be found in the writings of the mystics, in the sermons and in the elaborate rules for the practice of confessors. In them we find a spirit of affirmation of man’s dignity and of the legitimacy of the expression of his whole self. Along with such an attitude we find the notion of the imitation of Christ, widespread as early as the twelfth century, and a belief tht man could aspire to be like God. The rules for confessor showed a great understanding of the concrete situation of the individual and gave recognition to subjective individual differences. They did not treat sin as the weight by which the individual should be weighed down and humiliated, but as human frailty for which one should have understanding and respect. Man’s quest for the New Being which overcomes existential estrangement ends in the acceptance of Jesus of Nazareth as the Christ. Peter’s confession at Caesarea Philippi—“Thou art the Christ”—marks the birth of Christianity, for it contains the two basic elements of the Christian message: the fact of Jesus of Nazareth and His reception as the Christ in an act of faith. The receptive side of the Christian events is as important as the factual side. And only their unity creates the event upon which Christianity is based. The absolute refusal for Mr. Tillich to use the name “Jesus Christ” is founded upon this distinction between the man from Nazareth and the mythological title “the Christ” which is paradoxically attached to him by faith. He therefore employs such phrases as “Jesus who is called the Christ,” or “Jesus who is the Christ,” or “Jesus as the Christ,” or “Jesus the Christ.” #RandolphHarris 10 of 19

The reality of the Christ will be discussed under the following headings: historical research and the Christ, the New Bring, theories of Christology, the significance of the Cross and the Resurrection, and the meaning of salvation. The very first step toward freedom is knowledge of the truth regarding the source and nature of experiences the believer may have had since his entrance into the spiritual life—experiences which possibly may have been perplexing, or else thought with deepest assurance to be of God. THERE IS NO DELIVERACE FROM “DECEPTION” BUT BY THE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT AND ACCEPTANCE OF TRUTH. And this facing of truth in regard to certain spiritual and “supernatural” experiences is like a keen-edge knife to a person’s self-respect and pride. It requires a very deep allegiance to the truth which God desires should reign in the inward parts of His children for a believer to readily accept truth which cuts and humbles. The “undeceiving” is painful to the feelings. The discover that he had been deceived is one of the keenest blows to a man who once thought that he was so “advanced,” so “spiritual,” and so “infallible” in his certainty of obeying the Spirit of God. The deceived believer laid claim to positions to which he had no right, for with the entrance of truth he discovers that he was neither so advanced, nor so spiritual, nor so infallible as he had thought. He built his faith about his own spiritual condition on assumption, and left no room for doubt—that is, true doubt, such as doubting a statement that afterwards turns out to be a lie. However, in due season doubt finds an entry to his mind and brings his house of infallibility to the ground. #RandolphHarris 11 of 19

He knows now that what he thought was an “advanced” experience was only a beginning, and that he is only on the fringe of knowledge. This is the operation of truth. In place of ignorance is given true knowledge; in place of deception, truth. Ignorance, falsehood and passivity—upon these three the enemy silently builds his castles, and unobtrusively guards and uses them. However, truth pulls his strongholds to the ground. By the entry of truth the man must be brought to the place where he acknowledges his condition frankly, as follows: I believe that it is POSSIBLE for a Christian to be deceived by psychopathological offenders. It is possible for ME to be deceived. I Am deceived by a psychopathological offender. WHY am I deceived? When the deception is of long standing, the psychopathological offender may get the believer himself to defend their work in him, and through him fight tenaciously to guard the cause of deception from being brought into light, and exposed as their work. They thus get the believer himself, in effect, to take their side, and fight for them to keep their hold, even after he had found out his condition and honestly desires deliverance. Trust is so fundamental to the human experience that philosophers, sociologists, psychologists, and anthropologists have all devoted a lot of attention to its study. Economic science is about more than just making money. It is about making choices. You may have read or heard that economics is about scarcity: economists use this term to remind us that every choice we make requires trade-offs. (At least all the interesting one do.) #RandolphHarris 12 of 19

If we lived in an Edenic paradise where all our desires were taken care of, then we could all have everything we wanted; scarcity reminds us that resources are finite and that choices must be made. Even if we had unlimited money, we have limited time, so we must make trade-offs. Choices that require trade-offs require us to understand the pros and cons of each choice in order to assess the costs and benefits and balance the potential rewards against the possible risks. At its heart, trust is about making a choice: Do I rely on this person, or do I not? Having trust means that you are willing to enter into a risky situation with another person because you believe in them. Trust is needed in situations where working with someone is better than working alone. However, working with someone brings risks: what if this person lets me down, or what is they prove to be unreliable? Trust matters when the choice to rely on someone is difficult, when trusting someone means taking a risk. Economists have spent a lot of time studying how people make decision under uncertainty, when pros and cons have to be evaluated, and when the benefits have to be weighed against the costs. The same tools that economists use to evaluate the riskiness of investing in the stock market can be applied to the choice we make to invest our trust in one another. Economics is also about picking apart the complex, rich tapestry of life into its individual threads. This is often accomplished through the use of math, which forces us to be more precise about that we are measuring and what we are assuming about how things work and how things interact. #RandolphHarris 13 of 19

Those who care about economics should also care about trust. Those who care about trust can learn and benefit from the tools employed by economists—tools that offer a different perspective from those employed by other social sciences. The future creates the possibility of punishment that can sustain honesty in the present. The matches are independent across time This creates the need for an information-transmission mechanism whereby others in the community may find out about the cheating of any one of them. In reality, traders will try to sustain bilateral relations so as to be able to sustain honesty by direct reciprocity. However, there are also many economic situations where repeated bilateral interactions are rare, and in others there is the risk of bilateral relationships being severed because one of the partners has to move, or retires, or dies. Therefore theory should examine situations where the person you trade with in the future is not the same as the one you contemplate cheating now, and independent matches are the simplest way to model this. If the trader cheats his current partner, he gets an immediate gain as usual in the prisoner’s dilemma. The potential cost is that his future partners may hear of this, in which case they will refuse to play with him. The option of not playing is what helps sustain cooperation. By localization of matches and information, if you cheat someone farther away from you, the news is less likely to reach potential future partners closer to you, and they are the ones you are more likely to meet in the future. #RandolphHarris 14 of 19

Therefore the likelihood of losing those trades, and therefore the expected future cost of cheating, is smaller when the current partner is father away. A countervailing effect is that the news is more likely to reach some traders who are father from you, and trades with them are more valuable. However, the probability of meeting them decays faster than the value of the trade increases. The overall result is that the net benefit from cheating increases with the distance between you and your current partner. Therefore the structure of equilibria, where people behave honestly with others within a certain distance of themselves, is intuitive. Note the nature of localization of honesty. It is not the case that the World splits into a number of disjoint communities, such that each of them can sustain honest dealing between any pair of its own members but honesty is infeasible if two traders from two different communities meet. Rather, we have overlapping neighbourhoods of honesty. Second Wave organizations accumulate more and more functions over time and get fat. Third Wave organizations, instead of adding functions, subtract or subcontract them to day slim. As a result, they outrace the dinosaurs when the Ice Age approaches. Second Wave organizations find it hard to suppress the impulse toward “vertical integration”—the idea that to make a BMW you also have to mine the iron ore, ship it to the steel mills, make the steel, and ship it to the auto plant. Third Wave companies, by contrast, contract out as many of their tasks as possible, often to smaller more specialized high-tech companies and even to individuals who can do the work faster, better and more affordably. #RandolphHarris 15 of 19

Carried to its limit, the corporation is deliberately hollowed out, its staff reduced to a minimum, its activities carried out at dispersed locations, the organization itself becoming a “nexus of contracts.” Minimalist, partly unseen organizations are now the linchpins of our World. While many of us may not work for them directly, we will be selling our services to them and the wealth of our societies will depend on them. This new form of “virtual” organization has been made possible by Third Wave information and communication technologies. There is an important idea of “congruence”—there must be some compatibility between the way the private sector and the public sector are organized if they are not to stifle one another. Today the private sector is charging ahead on a supersonic jet. The public sector has not even unloaded its bags at the airport entry. Evaluating a policy or program? Ask who is supposed to carry it out—verticalizers or virtualizers. The answer will provide a clue to whether it merely prolongs the unworkable past or helps the future. The decline of honesty as the size of the World grows beyond the limit of global self-governance has limited the capacity for processing information, with the result that, faced with the information overload available in this Internet age, they choose to look at what is coming from local sources that are know to them. Small communities can achieve full self-governance using their own information systems and do not need external governance. In very large communities, the benefits that are available for trade with distant partners can only be realized by instituting a system of external government at cost. Communities of an intermediate size fare worst: they are too large for self-governance. When an expanding economy reaches the size where external governance becomes just cost-effective, “it is darkest just before the dawn” for it. However, even very large communities with external governance may or may not be better than the optimal-sized self-governing small communities. #RandolphHarris 16 of 19

If we look at the new Department of Health, Education and Welfare, this appears to be the public agency at the national level which most fully comprises six types of service to families. Its man units are the Public Health Service, the Social Security Administration, and the Office of Education. The Children’s Bureau falls under Social Security, along with certain services to the aged and disabled. The only other protective agency in the government, directly concerned with families, is the Women’s Bureau in the Department of Labor. Because it was suggested for many years by professional bodies, there is now an Office of Parks and Recreation. Counseling agencies find a minor link with the National Institute of Mental Health, a research unit in the Public Health Service, but on the whole mental health responsibilities are left for the states to discharge through institutional care of the mentally disabled. Although the Department of Health, Education and Welfare tries to rationalize the miscellany of its components by referring to their common thread of family service, neither its structure nor its programs exhibit a comprehensive family policy. Beyond childhood, healthy is no longer thought of only as the absence of disease, but in terms of weight, appearance, energy, vivacity, longevity, and the joy of competent performance. Diet is undergoing unlimited elaboration according to standards of aesthetics, novelty, interest, and etiquette, and the same is true of an adult’s intimate life. On the strictly physical side, the mobilization of family agencies to pursue health as a value seems more clear-cut and unified than almost any other element of our implicit or explicit family policy. #RandolphHarris 17 of 19

It is at the margins where mental states produce physical symptoms that the organizations of the community to promote positive health in a unified manner is more questionable. The fatigued housewife with nothing to do is a numerous example; by proper organization of community resources, her leisure could be rewarding instead of unhygienic. Economic agencies: Any common-sense assumption that values in the economic sphere are simply reducible to the idea of more would fail to recognize what has been happening in American families, at least to those of the middle majority. Until very recently, it has almost universally taken for granted that progress was to be measured by the steady liberation of our citizens from conditions of necessity. However, a long succession of triumphs in turning conditions into means of scarcity of means into fullness, though gratifying in retrospect and provoking envy abroad, has brought us to the threshold of a peculiarly novel problem. The goal of progressively overcoming natural limitations was always a value. Since it motivated all alike, it awakened no problem of values. However, as the further conquest of limiting conditions more and more loses its importance, through success and becoming the routine of specialists, the problem of values strikes with full force. If we turn to the economic situation of the fortunate majority of American families, we find that despite the great variety among them, a common predicament of choice among values confronts us. The problem is not how can I produce enough to live, but what career shall I undertake? #RandolphHarris 18 of 19

Not how can I pay for necessities but, shall I take the job that pays most, or the one I shall enjoy most? Not the living wage, but the wage regarded as fair in relation to the incomes of those with whom comparisons count. Not to keep the wolf from the door, but to keep up with some set of Jones’ in their pattern of consumption, or leisure, or kinds of friends. The outstanding necessity is the necessity of choice, of selecting alternatives and sticking to them. On the side of consumption, the perspective for the extension of positive values can perhaps be summarized in the nation of development of personal style. The economic agency that can organize the procedure by which consumers can become effective critics of their own consumption will be advanced by this value. On the side of distribution, it is obvious that incomes in the United States of America are still very unequally distributed, though their per capita average has been rising steadily. Likewise leisure is unequal. Another value respecting income, in the pursuit of which American families welcome leadership, is that of further stabilization, including duration after retirement. On the side of production and employment, it is almost astonishing how definitely and widely Americans have come to prefer a salaried career in their favored occupations. The very concept of a career has come to express a complex value, which includes education, status, security, and satisfaction from one’s work, the nature and rewards of which evolve in an orderly way over the lifetime. Preparation of family members for pursuing careers is a transformed function of the family, and expansion of access to careers is a growing function of family agencies in this sphere. And a #RandolphHarris 19 of 19

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