If our democracy is to flourish, it must have criticism; if our government is to function, it must have dissent. The circumstances of justice may be described as the normal conditions under which human cooperation is both possible and necessary. Thus, although a society is a cooperative venture for mutual advantage, it is typically marked by a conflict as well as an identity of interests. There is an identity of interests since social cooperation makes possible a better life for all than any would have if each were to try to live solely by one’s own efforts. There is a conflict of interests since humans are not indifferent as to how the greater benefits produced by their collaboration are larger to a lesser share. Thus principles are needed for choosing among the various social arrangements which determine this division of advantages and for underwriting an agreement on the proper distributive shares. These requirements define the role of justice. The background conditions that give rise to these necessities are the circumstances of justice. These conditions may be divided into two kinds. First, there are the objective circumstances which make human cooperation both possible and necessary. #RandolphHarris 1 of 25

Thus, many individuals coexist together at the same time on a definite geographical territory. These individuals are roughly similar in physical and mental powers; or at any rate, their capacities are comparable in that no one among them can dominate the rest. They are vulnerable to attack, and all are subject to having their plans blocked by the united force of others. Finally, there is the condition of moderate scarcity understand to cover a wide range of situations. Natural and other resources are not so abundant that schemes of cooperation become superfluous, nor are conditions so harsh that fruitful ventures must inevitably break down. While mutually advantageous arrangements are feasible, the benefits they yield fall short of the demands humans put forward. The subjective circumstances are relevant aspects of the subjects of cooperation, that is, of the persons working together. Thus while the parties have roughly similar needs and interests, or needs and interests in various ways complementary, so that mutually advantageous cooperation among them is possible, they nevertheless have their own plans of life. These plans, or conceptions of the good, lead them to have different ends and purposes, an to make conflicting claims on the natural and social resources available. #RandolphHarris 2 of 25

Moreover, although the interests advanced by these plans are not assumed to be interests in the self, they are the interests of a self that regards its conceptions of the good as worthy of recognition and that advantages claims in its behalf as deserving satisfaction This aspect of the circumstances of justice by assuming that the parties take no interest in one another’s interest. I also suppose that humans suffer from various shortcomings of knowledge, thought, and judgment. Their knowledge is necessarily incomplete, their powers of reasoning, memory, and attention are always limited, and their judgment is likely to be distorted by anxiety, bias, and preoccupation with their own affairs. Some of these defects spring from moral faults, from selfishness and negligence; but to a large degree, they are simply part of human’s natural situation. As a consequence individuals not only have different plans of life but there exists a diversity of philosophical and religious belief, and of political and social doctrines. Now this constellation of conditions I shall refer to as the circumstances of justice. Hume’s account of them is especially perspicuous and the preceding summary adds nothing essential to his much fuller discussion. #RandolphHarris 3 of 25

For simplicity I often stress the condition of moderate scarcity (among the objective circumstances), and that of mutual disinterest, or individuals taking no interest in one another’s interests (among the subjective circumstances), and that of mutual disinterest, or individuals taking no interests in one another’s interests (among the subjective circumstances). Thus, one can say, in brief, that the circumstances of justice obtain whenever mutually disinterested persons put forward conflicting claims to the division of social advantages under conditions of moderate scarcity. Unless these circumstances existed there would be no occasion for the virtue of justice, just as in the absence of threats of injury to life and limb there would be no occasion for physical courage. Several clarifications should be noted. First of all, I shall, of course, assume that the persons in the original position know that these circumstances of justice obtain. This much they take for granted about the conditions of their society. A further assumption is that the parties try to advance their conception of the good as best they can, and that in attempting to do this they are not bound by prior moral ties to each other. The question arises, however, whether the persons in the original position have obligations and duties to third parties, for example, to their immediate descendants. #RandolphHarris 4 of 25

To say that persons in the original position do have obligations to third parties would be one way of handling questions of justice between generations. However, the aim of justice as fairness is to derive all duties and obligations from other conditions; so this way out should be avoided. Instead, I shall make a motivational assumption. The parities are thought of as representing continuing lines of claims, as being, so to speak, as representing continuing lines of claims, as being, so to speak, deputies for a kind of everlasting moral agent or institution. They need not take into account its entire life span in perpetuity, but their goodwill stretches over at least two generations. Thus representatives from periods adjacent in time have overlapping interests. For example, we may think of the parties as heads of families, and therefore as having a desire to further the welfare of their nearest descendants. As representatives of families their interests are opposed as the circumstances of justice imply. It is not necessary to think of the parties as heads of families, although I shall generally follow this interpretation. What is essential is that each person in the original position should care about the well-being of some of those in the next generation, it being presumed that their concern is for different individuals in each case. #RandolphHarris 5 of 25

Moreover for anyone in the next generation, there is someone who cares about one in the present generation. Thus the interests of all are looked after and, given the veil of ignorance, the whole strand is tied together. It should be noted that I make no restrictive assumptions about the parties’ conceptions of the good except that they are rational long-term plans. While these plans determine the aims and interests of a self, the aims and interests are not presumed to be egoistic or selfish. Whether this is the case depends upon the kinds of ends which a person pursues. If wealth, position, and influence, and the accolades of social prestige, are a person’s final purposes, then surely one’s conception of the good is egoistic. One’s dominant interests are in oneself, not merely, as they must always be, interests of self. There is no inconsistency, then, in supposing that once the veil of ignorance is removed, the parties find that they have ties of sentiment and affection, and want to advance the interests of others and to see their ends attained. However, the postulate of mutual disinterest in the original position is made to insure that the principles of justice do not depend upon strong assumptions. #RandolphHarris 6 of 25

Recall that the original position is meant to incorporate widely shared and yet weak conditions. A conception of justice should not presuppose, then, extensive ties of natural sentiment. At the basis of the theory, one tries to assume as little as possible. Finally, when it is supposed that the parties are severally disinterested, and are not willing to have their interests sacrificed to the others, the intention is to express human’s conduct and motives in cases where questions of justice arise. The spiritual ideals of stains and heroes can be as irreconcilably opposed as any other interests. Conflict in pursuit of these ideals are the most tragic of all. Thus justice is the virtue of practices where there are competing interests and where persons feel entitled to press their rights on each other. In an association of saints agreeing on a common ideal, if such a community could exist, disputes about justice would not occur. Each would work selflessly for one end as determined by their common religion, and reference to this end (assuming it to be clearly defined) would settle every questions of right. However, a human society is characterized by the circumstances of justice. The account of these conditions involves no particular theory of motivation. #RandolphHarris 7 of 25

Rather, its aim is to include in the description of the original position the relations of individuals to one another which set the stage for questions of justice. The human body is a mighty complicated machine: That many secret powers lurk in it, which are altogether beyond our comprehension: That is to us it must often appear very uncertain in tis operations: And that therefore the irregular events, which outwardly discover themselves, can be no proof, that the laws of nature are no observed with the greatest regularity in its internal operations and government. All of our present data indicate the fighting behaviour among the higher mammals, including humans, originates in external stimulation and there is no evidence of spontaneous internal stimulation. Emotional and physiological processes prolong and magnify the effects of stimulation, but do not originate it. Humans, like all nonpredatory animals, have no dangerous natural weapons like claws, ex cetera and hence does not need such inhibitions; it is only because one has weapons that one’s lack of instinctive inhibitions becomes so dangerous. However, is it really true that humans have no inhibitions against killing? Humans historical record is so frequently characterized by killing that at first it would seem unlikely that one has any inhibitions. #RandolphHarris 8 of 25

However, this answer becomes questionable if we reformulate our question to read: Have humans any inhibitions against killing living beings, humans, and animals with whom one identifies to a greater or lesser degree id est, who are not complete strangers to one and to whom one is related by affective bonds? There are some evidence that such inhibitions might exist and that a sense of guilt may follow the act of killing. That the element of familiarity and empathy plays a role in generation of inhibitions against killing animals can easily be detected from reactions to be observed in everyday life. Many people show a definite aversion to killing and eating an animal with which they are familiar or one they have kept as a pet, like a rabbit or a goat. There are a large number of people who would not kill such an animal and to whom the idea of eating it is plainly repulsive. The same people usually have no hesitation in eating a similar animal where this element of empathy is lacking. However, there is not only an inhibition against killing with regard to animals that are individually known, but also inasmuch as a sense of identity is felt with the animal as another living being. This seems to be indicated in our language. #RandolphHarris 9 of 25

We use different words for flesh: if the animal is alive, we speak of its flesh; if the flesh is to be eaten, we call it meat. Quite clearly this differentiation is meant to remove the association between the animal one eats and the living animal. We even give different names to some animals depending on whether they are alive or to be eaten as food. When we speak of the live animal, we speak of cows and bulls; when we eat them, we talk about beef. Pigs to be eaten we call pork, deer we call venison, calf we call veal. While this is not true for all animals, these examples suffice to show the tendency to separate in our minds the categories of living animals from those we eat. All these data would indicate that there might be a conscious or unconscious feeling of guilt related to the destruction of life, especially when there is certain empathy. This sense of closeness to the animal and need to reconcile oneself to killing it is quite dramatically manifested in the rituals of the bear cult of Paleolithic hunters. The sense of identity with all living beings that share with humans the quality of life has been made explicit as an important moral tenant in Indian thinking and has led to the prohibition against killing any animal in Hinduism. #RandolphHarris 10 of 25

 It is not unlikely that inhibitions against killing also exist with regard to other humans, provided there is a sense of identity and empathy. We have to begin with the consideration that for primitive humans the stranger, the person who does not belong to the same group, is often not felt as a fellow human, but a something with which one does not identify. There is generally greater reluctance to kill a member of the same group, this is why when people turn against someone, they look for phenotype differences and choose sides, and the most severe punishment for misdeeds in primitive society often was ostracism, rather than death. (This is still apparent in the punishment of Cain in the Bible.) However, we are not restricted to these examples of primitive society. Even in a highly civilized culture like the Greek, the slaves were experienced as not being entirely human. We find the same phenomenon in modern society. All governments try, in the case of war, to awaken among their own people the feeling that the enemy is not human. One does not call one by one’s proper name, but by a different one, as in the first World War when the Germans were called “Huns” by the British or “Boches” by the French. This destruction of the humanness of the enemy came to it peak with enemies of different colour. #RandolphHarris 11 of 25

In some wars, opponents are called derogatory names. Even the word “killing” is eliminated by using the word “wasting.” When a Lieutenant accused and convicted for murdering a number of civilians, men, women, and child was brought to trial, he used as an argument for his defense the consideration that he was not taught to look at the soldiers as human beings but only as “the enemy.” Whether that is sufficient defense or not is not the question here. It is certain a strong argument, because it is true and puts into words the underlying attitude toward the less affluent in a country one was at war with. Hitler did the same by calling “political enemies” he wanted to destroy Untermenschen (“subhumans”). When someone wants to make it easier for one’s own side to destroy living beings of other, to indoctrinate one’s own soldiers with a feeling, it seems almost a rule that those to be slaughtered are nonpersons. Tom Wicker in reflections on the wholesale slaughter of hostages and inmate by the forces that stormed the prison in Attica, New York USA, wrote a very thoughtful column making the same point. He refers to a statement issued by New York State Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller after the massacre at Attics which beings with the sentence: “Our hearts go out to the families of the hostages who died at Attica.” RandolphHarris 12 of 25

Then Wicker writes: “Much of what went wrong at Attica—and of what is wrong at most other American prisons and ‘corrections facilities’—can be found in the simple fact that neither in the sentence nor in any other did the governor or any official extend a word of sympathy to the families of the dead prisoners. True, at that time, it was thought that the deaths of the hostages had been caused by the prisoners, rather than—as is now known—by the bullets and buckshot of those ordered by the state authorities to go over the walls shooting. However, even had the prisoners, instead of the police, been the killers of hostages, they still would have been human beings, certainly their mothers and wives and children still would have been human beings. However, the official heart of the state of New Work and its officials did not go out to any of them. That is the root of the matter; prisoners, particularly Black prisoners, in all too many cases are neither considered nor treated as human beings. And since they are not, neither are their families. Time and again, members of the special observers’ group that tried to negotiate a settlement at Attica heard the prisoners plead that they too, were human beings and wanted above all to be treated as such. #RandolphHarris 13 of 25

“Once, in a negotiating session through a steel-barred gate that divided prisoner-held and state-held territory, Assistant Corrections Commissioner Walter Dunbar told the prisoner leader, Richard Clark: ‘In 30 years, I have never lied to an inmate. But how to a man?’ Clark said quietly.” (The New York Times, September 18, 1971.) Another way of making the other a “nonperson” is cutting all affective bonds with one. This occurs as a permanent state of mind in certain severe pathological cases, but it can also occur transitorily in one who is not sick. It does not make any different whether the object of one’s aggression is a stranger or a close relative or a friend; what happens is that the aggressor cuts the other person off emotionally and “freezes” one. The other ceases to be experienced as human and becomes a “thing—over there.” Under these circumstances there are no inhibitions against even the most severe forms of destructiveness. There is good clinical evidence for the assumption that destructive aggression occurs, at least to a large degree, in conjunction with momentary or chronic emotional withdrawal. Whenever another being is not experienced as human, the act of destructiveness and cruelty assumes a different quality. #RandolphHarris 14 of 25

A simple example will show how destructiveness and cruelty assumes a different quality, and this is something many may have never considered, but drives home the point. If a Hindu or a Buddhist, for instance, provided one has a genuine and deep feeling of empathy with all living beings, were to see the average modern person kill a fly without the slightest hesitation, one might judge this act as an expression of considerable callousness and destructiveness; but one would be wrong in this judgment. The point is that for many people they fly is simply not experiences as a sentient being and hence is treated as any disturbing “thing” would be; it is not that such people are especially cruel, even thought their experience of “living beings” is restricted. The mutual dependence of humans is so great, in all societies, that scarce any human action is entirely complete in itself, or is performed without some reference to the actions of others, which are requisite to make it answer fully the intention of the agent. Reasoning concerning the actions of others enters so much into human life, that no human, while awake, is ever a moment without employing it. Have we not reason, therefore, to affirm, that all humankind have always agreed in the doctrine of necessity, according to the foregoing definition and explication of it? #RandolphHarris 15 of 25

How could politics be a science, if laws and forms of government had not a uniform influence upon society? Where would be the foundation of morals, if particular characters had no certain or determinate power to produce particular sentiments, and if these sentiments had no constant operations and actions? Honestly is closely related to truth. The Christian mind is honest about what it does and does not believe. The thinking Christian mind is honest about what it does and does not believe. The thinking Christian tried to be honest to oneself and to others. An important part of honesty is proportionality. Proportionality is the measure of the degree to which one ought to accept a belief or the degree to which a specific argument actually supports that belief. We ought to proportion our degree of belief to the degree for which we have grounds for accepting it. Many times we think that believing something with less than complete certainty means we really do not believe it. However, this is not true. If you believe something, you must be at least slightly more certain that it is true than you are that it is false—you must be more than fifty-fifty regarding a belief. And your certainty about the belief can grow. #RandolphHarris 16 of 25

This growth ought to be based on and proportional to the rational considerations relevant to the belief. It is unproductive to try to believe something beyond your grounds for believing it and dishonest to act as if you believe something more strongly than you do. Overbelief is not a virtue. For example, I am far from certain on many Christian belief I hold. I lean toward the view that the days of Genesis are vast periods of time and not literal twenty-four-hour periods. However, about two days of the week I flip-flop and accept the literal view. Based on my study, I cannot convince myself either way, and I am about sixty-forty in favour of the old-Earth position. Other beliefs of mine have grown in certainty over the years—that God really exists, for example. We should be honest with ourselves about the strength of our various beliefs and work on strengthening them by considering the issues relevant to their acceptance. We should also be honest about what arguments are and are not good in supporting our beliefs. Recently, I heard a guest minister preach a sermon about prophylactics distribution in the public schools. He began by acknowledging the he was against this practice and went onto lecture on the various arguments for and against it. #RandolphHarris 17 of 25

At one point he criticized as inadequate an argument used by many Christians against prophylactic distribution. He was not promoting prophylactic distribution, he was demoting a bad argument against it. What happened after the service was very sad. A number of people criticized him behind his back because, on their view, he had come down in favour of prophylactic distribution. However, this was clearly wrong. He had simply criticized one argument raised against prophylactic distribution. His point was this: God is not honoured when His people use bad arguments for what may actually be correct conclusions. Proportionality involves distinguishing a conclusion from arguments used to reach it and recognizing that rejecting certain arguments is not the same as rejecting a conclusion. Because of minds not trained to be sensitive proportionally, people in the congregation could not hear what the minister said and missed a great chance to learn something. Wisdom is also related to truth seeking. Wisdom is the wise use and application of knowledge. It involved knowing how to use good means to accomplish worthy ends in a skillful manner. The New Testament clearly teaches that the more one is willing to obey and apply the truth, the more one will be in a position to gain knowledge about more truth. #RandolphHarris 18 of 25

For the Christian, seeking the truth is no ere abstract activity unrelated to life. The more we practice living what we already know, the better we will be at learning more. Some Christians misunderstand the nature of wisdom, preferring practical wisdom and disdaining theoretical knowledge. However, since wisdom is the application of knowledge, you cannot be practically wise without being theoretically informed. If a growing Christian mind is to become a reality, truth seeking, honesty and proportionality, and wisdom are important virtues to cultivate. “Now it came to pass that the ninety and first year had passed away and it was six hundred years from the time that Lehi left Jerusalem; and it was in the year that Lachoneus was the chief judge and the governor over the land. And Nephi, the son of Helaman, had departed out of the land of Zarahemla, giving charge unto his son Nephi, who was his eldest son, concerning the plated of brass, and all the records which had been kept, and all those things which had been kept sacred from the departure of Lehi out of Jerusalem. Then he departed out of the land, and whiter he went, no man knoweth; and his son Nephi did keep the records in his stead, yes, the record of this people. #RandolphHarris 19 of 25

“And it came to pass that in the commencement of the ninety and second year, behold, the prophecies of the prophets began to be fulfilled more fully; for there began to be greater signs and greater miracles wrought among the people. However, there were some who began to say that the time was past for the words to be fulfilled, which were spoken by Samuel, the Lamanite. And they began  rejoice over their brethren, saying: Behold the time is past, and the words of Samuel are not fulfilled; therefore, your joy and your faith concerning this thing hath been vain. And it came to pass that they did make a great uproar throughout the land; and the people who believed began to be very sorrowful, least by any means those things which had been spoken might not come to pass. However, behold, they did watch steadfastly for that day and that night and that day which should be as one day as if there were no night, that they might know that their faith had not been vain. Now it came to pass that there was a day set apart by the unbelievers, that all those who believed in those traditions should be put to death except the sign should come to pass, which had been given by Samuel the prophet. Now it came to pass that when Nephi, the son of Nephi, saw this wickedness of his people, his heart was exceedingly sorrowful. #RandolphHarris 20 of 25

“And it came to pass that he went out and bowed himself down upon the Earth, and cried mightily to his God in behalf of his people, yea, those who were about to be destroyed because of their faith in the tradition of their fathers. And it came to pass that he cried mightily unto the Lord all that day; and behold, the voice of the Lord same unto him, saying: Life up your hear and be of good cheer; for behold, the time is at hand, and on this night shall the sign be given, and on the morrow come I into the World, to show unto the World that I will fulfill all that which I have caused to be spoken by the mouth of my holy prophets. Behold, I come unto my own, to fulfill all things which I have made known unto the children of men from the foundation of the World, and to do the will, both of the Father and of the Son—of the Father because of me, and of the Son because of my flesh. And behold, the time is at hand, and this night shall the sign be given. And it came to pass that the words which came unto Nephi were fulfilled, according as they had been spoken; for behold, at the going down of the Sun there was no darkness; and the people began to be astonished because there was no darkness when the night came. #RandolphHarris 21 of 25

“And there were many, who had not believed the words of the prophets, who fell to the Earth and because as if they were dead, for they know that the great plan of destruction which they had laid for those who believed in the words of the prophets had been frustrated; for the sign which had been given was already at hand. And they began to know that the Son of God must shortly appear; yea, in fine, all the people upon the face of the whole Earth from the west to the east, both in the land north and in the land south, were so exceedingly astonished that they fell to the Earth. For they knew that the prophets had testified of these things for many years, and that the sign which had been given was already at hand; and they began to fear because of their iniquity and their unbelief. And it came to pass that there was no darkness in all that night, but it was as light as though it was mid-day. And it came to pass that the Sun did rise in the morning again, according to its proper order; and they knew that it was the day that the Lord should be born, because of the sign which had been given. And it had come to pass, yea, all things, every whit, according to the words of the prophet. And it came to pass that a new start did appear, accord to the word. #RandolphHarris 22 of 25

“And it came to pass that from this time forth there began to be lyings sent forth among the people, by Satan, to harden their hearts, to the intent that they might not believe in those signs and wonders which they had seen; but notwithstanding these lyings and deceivings the more part of the people did believe, and were converted unto the Lord. And it came to pass that Nephi went forth among the people, and also many others baptizing unto repentance, in the which there was a great remission of sins. And this the people began again to have peace in the land. And there were no contentions, save it were a few that began to preach, endeavouring to prove by the scriptures that it was more expedient to observe the law of Moses. Now this thing they did err, having not understood the scriptures. However, it came to pass that they soon became converted, and were convinced of the error which they were in, for it was made known unto them that the law was not yet fulfilled, and that it must be fulfilled in every whit; yea, the word came unto them that it must be fulfilled; yea, that one jot or till it should all be fulfilled; therefore in this same year were they brought to a knowledge of their error ad did confess their faults. #RandolphHarris 23 of 25

“And this the ninety and second year did pass away, brining glad tidings unto the people because of the signs which did come to pass, according to the words of the prophecy of all the holy prophets. And it came to pass that the ninety and third year did also pass away in peace, save it were for the Gadianton robbers, who dwelt upon the mountains, who did infest the land; for so strong were their holds and their secret places that the people could not overpower them; therefore they did commit many murders, and did do much slaughter among the people. And it came to pass that in the ninety and fourth years they began to increase in great degree, because there were many dissenters of the Nephites who did flee unto them, which did cause much sorrow unto those Nephites who did remain in the land. And there was also a cause of much sorrow among the Lamanites; for behold, they had many children who did grow up and began to wax strong in the years, that they became for themselves, and were led away by some who were Zoramites, by their lyings and their flattering words, to join those Gadianton robbers. And thus were the Lamanites afflicted also, and began to decrease as to their faith and righteousness, because of the wickedness of the rising generation,” reports 3 Nephi 1.1-30. #RandolphHarris 24 of 25

From Father Night, the God is born returning to us, pouring out blessings, I raise my hands to the new-born babe Who, even so young does not hesitate, but rides forth manfully in his shining wheeled chariot. Rise up on the right path, Ord; rise up and distribute your light freely as a king in his hall scatters gold. Scatter your welcome light, God, as freely as a host spreading feast for guest. Place before us the banquet of this day’s deed and we will share it with you. O Lord Jesus Christ, Who art the Truth Incarnate and the Teacher of the faithful; let Thy Spirit overshadow us in reading Thy Word, and conform our thoughts to Thy Revelation; that learning of Thee with honest hearts, we may be rooted and built up in Thee, Who livest in intelligence, Who can open gates of higher Worlds and newer views. Please allow our minds to be still and know the Truth! O God, by Whom the meek are guided in judgment, and light riseth up in darkness for the Godly; please grant us, in all our doubts and uncertainties, the grace to ask what Thou wouldest have us to do; that the Spirit of wisdom may save us from all false choices, and that in Thy light we may see light, and in Thy straight path may not stumble; through Jesus Christ our Lord. #RandolphHarris 25 of 25

BRIGHTON STATION AT CRESLEIGH RANCH

Rancho Cordova, CA |

Now Selling!

Residence Three at Brighton Station boasts 2,757 square feet in this expansive two story home. There are four bedrooms, three and a half bathrooms, and a three car garage!

The kitchen comes fully equipped with a large eat-in island, stainless steel appliances, quartz counters, and large walk in pantry. The openness in the design allows the Great Room and kitchen to interact with each other seamlessly. This home comes with an en suite bedroom on the first floor making it ideal for guests, or multi-generational living.

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