Although universities go back very far, the university as we know it, in its content and its aim, is the product of the Enlightenment.  To enlighten is to bring light where there had previously been darkness, to replace opinion, id est, superstition, by scientific knowledge of nature, beginning from the phenomena available to all men and ending in rational demonstration possible for all men. All things must be investigated and understood by reason, id est, science or philosophy (the distinction between the two is of recent origin, coming to currency only in the nineteenth century). Knowledge of the nature of all things is Enlightenment’s goal. The past was characterized not by ignorance but by false opinions. Men always had opinion about everything, but those opinions were without ground and indemonstrable. Yet they governed the nations of men and were authoritative. Thus the problem of Enlightenment is not merely discover of the truth but the conflict between the truth and the beliefs of men, which are incorporated into the law. Enlightenment begins from the tension between what men are compelled to believe by city and religion, on the one hand, and the quest for scientific truth on the other. To think and speak doubts about, let alone to propose substitutes for, the fundamental opinions was forbidden by every regime previously known to man. Doing so was thought to be, and in fact was, disloyal and impious. Of course, the men of the Enlightenment were not the first to recognize this tension. It has existed and been known to exist since science emerged in Greece sometime between the eighth and sixth centuries B.C. Enlightenment thinkers were aware that there had been surpassingly great philosophers, mathematicians, astronomers and political scientists from that time on, who had suffered persecution and been compelled to live on the fringes of society. #RandolphHarris 1 of 21

The learned society and the university, the publicly respected and supported communities of scientists—setting their own rules, pursuing knowledge according to the inner dictates of science, as opposed to civil or ecclesiastical authority, communicating freely among themselves—are the visible signs of that innovation. The earlier thinkers accepted the tension and lived accordingly. Their knowledge was essentially for themselves, and they had a private life very different from their public life. They were themselves concerned with getting from the darkness to the light. Enlightenment was a daring attempt to shine that light on all men, partly for the sake of the progress of science. The success of this attempt depended on scientists’ freedom to associate with and speak to one another. And only if the rulers believed that the scientists were not a threat to them, could freedom be won. Enlightenment was not only, or perhaps not even primarily, a scientific project but a political one. It began from the premise that the rulers could be educated, a premise not held by the Enlightenment’s ancient brethren. This project was a conspiracy, as d’Alembert said in the Preliminary Discourse of l’Encyclopedie, the premier document of the Enlightenment. It has to be, for, in order to have rulers who are reasonable, many of the old rulers had to be replaced, in particular all those whose authority rested upon revelation. The priests were the enemies, for they rejected the claim of reason and based politics and morals on sacred text and ecclesiastical authorities. The philosophers appeared to deny the very existence of God, or at least of the Christian God. The old order was founded on Christianity, and free use of reason simply could not be permitted within it, since reason accepts no authority above itself and is necessarily subversive. #RandolphHarris 2 of 21

There was a public struggle for the right to rule; for, in spite of the modest demeanor of the philosophers, they at the very least require rulers who are favorable to them, who have chosen reason. The right to freedom of thought is a political right, and for it to exist, there must be a political order that accepts that right. In other words, an argument had to be made that the free pursuit of science is good for society, in order to persuade the most powerful element of society and thus guarantee the protection of that pursuit. In a simple formula, it had to be shown that the progress of knowledge was parallel to political progress. This is by no means a self-evident proposition, as anyone who has read Rousseau’s Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, a powerful attack on it, knows. However, it is the leading principle of Enlightenment and the ultimate ground of the prejudice that most people have in favor of freedom of thought and inquiry. I say prejudice because the reasons have almost been forgotten, and other kinds of thought hostile to freedom of thought are current. The old order offered roots and salvation, and the very latest thought is marked by nostalgia for that old order. The Enlightenment thinkers proposed a political science that could be used by founders, such as in America, in establishing principles and arrangements for a sounder and more efficient politics, and a natural science that could master nature in order to satisfy men’s needs. These promises are what make reason not only acceptable within civil society but even central to it. A society based on reason needs those who reason best. The scientists were to be the most respected of men, taking the place of kinds and prelates, because they are the evident sources of the good think for life, liberty and the pursuit of property. It was not precisely replacing one faith by another, because the new science, if it cannot be practiced by just anyone, can be understood by anyone, if one is trained in its method, and knowledge of the rights and duties of man requires the use of his reason. #RandolphHarris 3 of 21

The Enlightenment was a daring enterprise. Its goal was to reconstitute political and intellectual life totally under the supervision of philosophy and science. No conqueror, prophet or founder ever had a broader vision, and none had more stunning success. There is practically no contemporary regime that is not somehow a result of Enlightenment, and the best of the modern regimes—liberal democracy—is entirely its product. And throughout the World all men and all regimes are dependent on and recognize the science popularized by the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment inexorably defeated all opponents it targeted at the outset, particularly the priests and all that depends on them, by a long process of education that taught men, as Machiavelli put it, about “the things of this World.” One need only read Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations, Book V, on education, to see how the reform of universities, particularly the overcoming of the theological influence, was essential to the emergence of modern political economy and the regime founded on it. Thus the academics and universities are the core of liberal democracy, its foundation, the repository of its animating principles and the continuing source of the knowledge and education keeping the machinery of the regime in motion. The regime of equality and liberty, of the rights of man, is the regimes of reason. The free university exists only in liberal democracy, and liberal democracies exist only where there are free universities. Marxists are right to say that the “bourgeois university” is essentially related to “bourgeois society,” but not in the sense they intend. The university does not defend that society because the university merely reflects its interests, but because the balance of forces within this kind of society is such as most to need, respect and, hence, protect, freedom of thought. Earlier associations of thinkers were under theological-political supervision by unquestioned right. Fascism rejected reason and controlled the universities. #RandolphHarris 4 of 21

When Hitler came to power, Karl Schmitt said, “Today Hegel died in Germany.” Hegel was arguably the greatest university man there ever was. And communism asserts that the people, under the guise of the vanguard party, has become rational, so that the university no longer needs a special statue—id est, it can be controlled by the Party. Only in liberal democracy is the primacy of reason accepted, even though its citizenry is not understood to be simply and always reasonable. It assures a special status for the university, an exemption from the ordinary moral and political limitations on what can be thought and said in a civil society. The university is not the beneficiary of the freedom of thought accorded to all the members of society. All to the contrary, in the original project of modern society, the general freedom of thought was believed to be desirable in order to support the kind of thought was believed to be desirable in order to support the kind of thought proper to philosophers and scientists, which alone strictly deserves the name of “thought.” At the outset the primary freedom was freedom of thought, both because reason is the highest faculty and because it is most necessary to the god society. If there was to be a new kind of society, a new dispensation for mankind, Hobbes, Descartes, Spinoza, Bacon, Locke and Newton had to be free to think and propagate what they learned. They very special status of what came to be called academic freedom has gradually been eroded, and there hardly remains an awareness of what it means. There is barely a difference recognized in popular and even university consciousness between academic freedom and job security guaranteed by government, business or unions. It has become assimilated to the economic system and looks like self-interest of a kind that is sometimes approved of and sometimes disapproved of. #RandolphHarris 5 of 21

The rights of science are now not distinguishable from the rights of thought in general, of any description whatsoever. Freedom of speech has given way to freedom of expression, in which the obscene gesture enjoys the same protected status as demonstrative discourse. It is all very wonderful; everything has become free, and no invidious distinctions need to be made. However, it is too good to be true. All that has really happened is that reason has been knocked off its perch, is less influential and more vulnerable as it joins the crowd of less worthy claims to the attention and support of civil society. The semitheoretical attacks of Right and Left on the university and its knowledge, the increased demands made on it by society, the enormous expansion of higher education, have combined to obscure what is most important about the university. In October 1983, just four years after Deng Xiaoping began to release China from the iron grip of anti-capitalism, a conference of policy leaders was held in Beijing under the wing of the reformist premier Zhao Ziyang, who called on China to study the concept of the Third Wave. Some, still fearful of stepping outside the perimeter of Marxist theory, reportedly went over Zhao’s head to the then general secretary of the Communist Party, Hu Yaobang, and asked what he thought of the conference proposal. Himself a liberal in the Chinses context at the time, Hu responded with words to the effect that “too many people in the party are afraid of new ideas.” Since then, top Chinese leaders—and tens of millions of their followers—have strongly supported the idea that China should not merely focus on industrialization. It should simultaneously, and as rapidly as possible, try to build a knowledge-intensive economy, skipping whenever possible the traditional stages of industrialization. #RandolphHarris 6 of 21

This is why China shoots an astronaut into space, why it sets out to become a biotech superpower, and why in just a few years it has more than 1.66 billion mobile-phone subscribers and more than one billion internet users. It is why China is attempting to set its own technical standards for DVD players, chips and computers, not merely for protectionist reasons but to influence future technological advance around the globe, as the British did in the nineteenth century and the Americans did in the twentieth. It is why the Beijing Genomics Center impressed the World by breaking the genetic code for rice in record time. It is why—while the Obama White House slowed medical research by severely restricting government money for embryonic stem-cell research—China moved more aggressively forward in this field. This is why the Chinese city of Dalian has become a knowledge center rather than a manufacturing base. They are not just making clothes there. GE, Microsoft, Dell, SAP, HP, Sony and Accenture have set up backroom operations there for Asian companies and software R&D centers. It is why in 2020 China graduated 1.4 million students from science programs and 600,000 from engineering programs and these numbers tend to be a yearly average, which is only growing. China is also making a concerted effort to bring home tens of thousands of Chinese scientists working in the United States. It is why hundreds of multinationals have rushed to set up R&D labs in China—with an estimated two hundred labs arriving each year. Says Harry Shum, chief of Microsoft’s Beijing lab, “Nowhere in this universe has a higher concentration of I.Q. power.” #RandolphHarris 7 of 21

And it is why China is leading the World in exports of digital equipment. China’s twin-track strategy—selling affordable industrial labour while racing to build its knowledge sector—is set against a background of less central planning, a downshift of power to regions and local governments, expansion of market activities and, if anything, an overemphasis on exports. These changes are accompanied by widespread pain, social disruption and unrest, all of which may well get much worse. Chinese leaders are right to put stability at the top of their agenda. However, much like the rest of the World, China has to worry about the COVID-19 pandemic, future epidemics and pandemics, along with protests, not merely on a manageable local level but on a national level; financial panics; environmental crises; out-of-control fuel and energy costs and looming shortages; and generational cleavages—not to mention greater instability relations with America, Taiwan and Hong Kong. Even worse, two or more of these crises could converge. Only the naïve think revolutionary changes follow straight trend lines. However, they also know their historic mission—to end the mass poverty that has characterized China for the past five thousand years. China has raised more than one billion people out of extreme poverty since 1979. The glass may be half empty, but before this, for these people, there was no glass. And no future. Nor is the twin-trach strategy applied only in China. The other vast pools of countries rising out of poverty are Africa and India. With these other nations expanding and rising out of poverty, to stay number one is going to be a challenge for America. That is why it is so important to support American business, American cars, American made meat and produce and washing machines, dryers and other types of American made products. #RandolphHarris 8 of 21

Now, consider a pair of jeans. The denim in them may well have come from Burlington Industries. This giant American textile firm sends it customers free software that allows them to communicate directly with Burlington’s mainframe, to paw through its stock of denims electronically, to find the particular batch of fabric they want, and to order it—all at instantaneous speeds. Manufacturers like Burlington hope such services will distinguish them from their competitors, make life easier for customers—and simultaneously lack those customers into the new “electronic data interchange” (EDI) systems so tightly that it will become hard for them to escape. At their simplest, EDI systems simply permit the electronic exchange of documents between companies or business units—invoices, specification, inventory data, and the like. However, leaving it at that is rather like calling Mozart a tunesmith. For by wedding one another’s data bases and electronic systems, companies re able to form highly intimate partnerships. For example, while Burlington opens its inventory files to its customer, Digital Equipment, the computer maker, opens its design secrets to its suppliers. When DEC places another order for components, it may electronically transfer its entire Computer-Aided-Design file to the supplier firm, so that both buyer and seller can work more closely together, step by step. The object is intimacy. The big auto companies now virtually refuse to do business with suppliers who are not equipped for electronic interaction. At Ford, fifty-seven parts plants have been told they must electronically exchange shipping schedules, material requisitions, releases, and receipts with both customers and suppliers. The benefits of EDI are not only a reduction in paperwork and inventory, but quicker, more flexible responses to customer needs. Together these can amount to massive savings. #RandolphHarris 9 of 21

However, the Worldwide shift to electronic interchange also implies radical changes in the business system. Companies are forming into what might be called “information-sharing groups.” More communication is crossing—and sometimes blurring—organizational boundaries. Whether in a Japanese insurance company or an American automaker, EDI forces major changes in accounting and other control systems. When a company goes electronic, jobs change; people move around; some departments gain clout, others lose. The entire relationship of the firm to its suppliers and customers is shaken up. Such power shifts, however, are not merely limited to individual firms. Whole sectors of the economy are already feeling the impact of EDI. For EDI can be used as a weapon to wipe out go-betweens and intermediaries. Shiseido, Japan’s top cosmetic firm, for example, uses its networks to sidestep the traditional distribution chain. Shiseido’s powders, creams, eye shadows, lotions, and what-have-you are everywhere in Japan and beginning to make a splash in American and European markets as well. By connecting its computers directly to those of its customers, Shiseido end-runs wholesalers and warehousers, delivering from its own distribution centers directly to the stores. If Shiseido and other manufacturers can “talk” directly with their retailers, and retailers can electronically access information in the manufacturer’s own computers, who needs an intermediary? “The wholesaler?” Bingo! By passed,” say Monroe Greenstein, a retail industry analyst at the Bear, Stearns securities firm in New York. To avoid that fate, wholesalers, too are turning to electronic weaponry. The most publicized, by now classic case of a wholesaler taking the offensive—and capturing new power in the marketplace—involves American Hospital Supply, now a part of Baxter Health Care Corporation. #RandolphHarris 10 of 21

Starting as early as 1978, AHS began placing terminals inside hopsitals and allowing them to dial directly, through a network, to its computers. It was much simpler for hospitals to order supplies from AHS by pushing a button than to deal with other, less sophisticated suppliers. It turns, AHS used the network to zap all sorts of useful information about products, usage, costs, inventory control, et cetera, to its customers. Because AHS’s system was so responsive and reliable, hospitals were able to cut back on their own inventories, saving them substantial money. And if a hospital placed all its business with AHS, the company provided an entire management information system for the hospital. AHS’s business skyrocketed. Consultant Peter Keen, from whose study, Competing in Time, some of these data are drawn, describes how Foremost McKesson, a pharmaceutical wholesaler, applied the AHS strategy to its own field. As customer orders flow into Foremost McKesson’s computers electronically from hand-held terminals placed in 15,000 stores, they are instantly sorted and consolidated. This generates Foremost McKesson’s own orders, fully half of which are then, in turn, instantly and automatically transmitted to its supplier firms. Such high-speed systems allow AHS, Foremost, and many other firms to wire themselves so snugly into their customers’ daily operations that it becomes costly and complex for them to shift their business elsewhere. In return, the systems save their customers significant sums and help them manage more smartly all around. All this pays off in negotiating power. However, AHS and McKesson are still exceptions. Most wholesalers could face an electronic squeeze play, caught between manufacturers and increasingly sophisticated retailers. Warehouse companies are next in line for trouble as extra-intelligence spreads through the economy. #RandolphHarris 11 of 21

The increasing customization and flexible manufacture made possible by computers, means, among other things, a shift from a few big orders for uniform products to many smaller orders for diversified products. Simultaneously, the speedup of business encouraged by electronic networking increases pressures for just-in-time delivery to factories and stores. All this implies fewer bulk shipments, shorter storage times, faster turnaround, and more insistence on precise information about the whereabouts of every stored item—less space, more information. This substitution reduces the clout of the space merchant and pushes smart warehousers into a search for alternative functions. Some are using networks and computers to sell customers data software services, transportation management, packing, sorting, inspecting, knockdown and assembly services, and the like. Still others—Sumitomo Warehouse in Japan, for instance—are moving into real estate development as the traditional functions of the warehouser dry up. The super-symbolic economy and the spread of extra-intelligence also shake up the transportation sector—railroads, shippers, and truckers. Like warehousers, many truckers are also turning to electronic networks to save themselves. In Japan the move toward short-run factory production and the push for just-in-time delivery means a big surge in short-haul work. And instead of delivering big loads on a once-a-week schedule, the pressure is toward smaller but far more frequent drop-offs. The most rapid growth is seen in door-to-door delivery. What we see, therefore, are all the traditional sectors of the production and distribution system wielding extra-intelligence to stay alive, or as an offensive weapon to extend their power. #RandolphHarris 12 of 21

Technopoly (the surrender of culture to technology) strove furiously to control information because the culture seeks all authority in technology to the point that it is becoming more satisfying to some than God. So much so that people are increasingly allowing technology to control their lives and taking orders from it. As we have discussed, there is a surplus of information, and we just keep generating more tools to help us deal with it. That is how people are now getting their direction and purpose for life. There have, of course, always been experts, even in tool-using cultures. The pyramids, Roman roads, the Strasbourg Cathedral, could hardly have been built without experts. However, the expert in Technopoly has two characteristics that distinguish one from experts of the past. First Technopoly’s experts tend to be ignorant about any matter not directly related to their specialized area. The average psychotherapist, for example, barely has even superficial knowledge of literature, philosophy, social history, art, religion, and biology, and is not expected to have such knowledge. Second, like bureaucracy itself (with which an expert may or may not be connected), Technopoly’s experts claim dominion not only over technical matters but also over social, psychological, and more affairs. In the United States of America, we have experts in how to raise children, how to educate them, how to be lovable, how to responsibly enjoy pleasures of the flesh, how to influence people, how to make friends. There is no aspect of human relations that has not been technicalized and therefore relegated to the control of experts. These special characteristics of the experts arose as a result of three factors. First, the growth of bureaucracies, which, in effect, produced the World’s fist entirely mechanistic specialist and thereby gave credence and prestige to the specialist-as-ignoramus. #RandolphHarris 13 of 21

Second, the weakening of traditional social institutions, which led ordinary people to lose confidence in the value of tradition. Third, and underlying everything else, the torrent of information which made it impossible for anyone to possess more than a tiny fraction of the sum total of human knowledge. As a college undergraduate, I was told by an enthusiastic professor of German literature that Goethe was the last person who knew everything. I assume she meant, by this astounding remark, less to deify Goethe than to suggest that by the year of his death, 1832, it was no longer possible for even the most brilliant mind to comprehend, let alone integrate, what was known. The role of the expert is to concentrate on one field of knowledge, sift through all that is available, eliminate that which has no bearing on a problem, and use what is left to assist in solving a problem. This process works fairly well in situations where only a technical solution is required and there is no conflict with human purposes—for example, in space rocketry or the construction of a sewer system. It works less well in situations where technical requirements may conflict with human purposes, as in medicine or architecture. And it is disastrous when applied to situations that cannot be solved by technical means and where efficiency is usually irrelevant, such as in education, law, family life, and problems of personal maladjustment. I assumes I d not need to convince the reader that there are no experts—there can be no experts—in child-rearing and pleasures of the flesh and friend-making. All of this is a figment of the Technopolist’s imagination, made plausible by the use of technical machinery, without which the expert would be totally disarmed and exposed as an intruder and an ignoramus. #RandolphHarris 14 of 21

In 1987, R.S. Becker, J.A. Golovchenko, and B.S. Swartzentruber at AT&T Bell Laboratories announced that they had used an scanning tunneling microscope (STM) to deposit small blobs on a germanium surface. Each blob was thought to consist of one or a few germanium atoms. Shortly thereafter, IBM Almaden researchers John Foster, Jane Frommer, and Patrick Arnett achieved a milestone in STM-based molecular manipulation. Of this team, Foster and Arnett attended the First Foresight Conference in Nanotechnology, where they told us the motivations behind their work. Foster came to IBM from Stanford University, where he had completed a doctorate in physics and taught at graduate school. The STM work was one of his first projects in the corporate World. He describes his colleagues Arnett as a former “semiconductor jock” involved in chip creation at IBM’s Burlington and Yorktown locations. Besides his doctorate in physics, Arnett brought mechanical-engineering training to the effort. Arnett explains what they were trying to do: “We wanted to see if you could do something on an atomic scale, to create a mechanism for storing information and getting it back reliably.” The answer was yes. In January 1988, the journal Nature carried their letter reporting success in pinning an organic molecule to a particular location on a surface, using an STM to form a chemical bond by applying an electrical pulse through the tip. They found that having created and sensed the feature, they could go back and use another voltage pulse from the tip to change the feature again: enlarging it, partly erasing it, or completely removing it. #RandolphHarris 15 of 21

IMB quickly saw a commercial use, as explained by Paul M. Horn, acting director of physical sciences at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center: “This means you can create a storage element the size of an atom. Ultimately, the ability to do that could lead to storage that is ten million times more dense than anything we have today. A broader vision was given by another researcher, J.B. Pethica, in the issue of Nature in which the work appeared: “The partial era ensure reported by Foster et. al. implied that molecules may have pieces deliberately removed, and in principle be automatically ‘edited,’ thereby demonstrating one of the ideals of nanotechnology.” Can proximal probes move atoms with complete precision? Foster’s group succeeded in pinning single molecules to a surface, but they could not control the results—the position and orientation—precisely. In April 1990, however, another group at the same laboratory carried the manipulation of atoms even further, brining a splash of publicity. Admittedly, the story must have been hard to resist: It was accompanied by an STM picture of the name “IBM,” spelled out with thirty-five precisely places atoms. The precision here is complete, like the precision of molecular assembly: each atom sits in a dimple on the surface of a nickel crystal; it can rest either in one dimple or in another, but never somewhere between. Donald Eigler, the lead author on the Nature paper describing this work, sees clearly where all this is leading: “For decades, the electronics industry has been facing the challenge of how to build smaller and smaller structures. For those of us who will not be using individual atoms as building blocks, the challenge will be how to build up structures atom by atom.” #RandolphHarris 16 of 21

Technical machinery is essential to both the bureaucrat and the expert, and may be regarded as a third mechanism of information control. I do not have in mind such “hard” technologies as the computer—which must, in any case, be treated separately, since it embodies all that Technopoly stands for. I have in mind “softer” technologies such as IQ tests, SATs, standardized forms, taxonomies, and opinion polls. These play a role in reducing the types and quantity of information admitted to a system that often goes unnoticed, and therefore their role in redefining traditional concepts also goes unnoticed. There is, for example, no test that can measures a person’s intelligence. Intelligence is a general term used to denote one’s capacity to solve real-life problems in a variety of novel contexts. It is acknowledged by everyone except experts that each person varies greatly in such capacities, from consistently effective to consistently ineffective, depending on the kinds of problems requiring solution. If, however, we are made to believe that a test can reveal precisely the quantity of intelligence a person has, then, for all institutional purposes, a score on a test becomes one’s intelligence. The test transforms an abstract and multifaceted meaning into a technical and exact term that leaves out everything of importance. One might even say that an intelligence test is a tale told by an expert, signifying nothing. Nonetheless, the expert relies on our believing in the reality of technical machinery, which means we will reify the answers generated by the machinery. We come to believe that our score is our intelligence, or our capacity for creativity or love or pain. We come to believe that the results of opinion polls are what people believe, as if our beliefs can be encapsulated in such sentences as “I approve” and “I disapprove.” #RandolphHarris 17 of 21

Political movements with single charismatic leaders are usually always more suitable and efficient for television. When a movement has no leader or focus, television needs to create one. Mao is simpler to transmit than Chinese communism. Chavez is better television than farm workers. Steinem is better than women. Graham is better than Christianity. Erhard is better than “human potential movement.” Hitler is easier to convey than fascism. Nader is easier than consumerism. Trump is better than corruption. The one is easier than the many. The personality of the symbol is easier than the philosophy. The philosophy requires depth, time, development, and in some cases, sensory information. This remains true unless the many are made into copies of each other. Then, the one is the same as the many. For the same reasons, hierarchy is easier to report upon than democracy or collectivity. The former is focused and has a specific form: leaders and followers. Only the leaders need to be interviewed. Democratic or collective forms need to be interviewed. Democratic or collective forms involve flow processes with power constantly shifting. Television reporters do not have time to interview everyone. And this is how technology is controlling our lives. Superficiality is easier than depth. Short subjects with beginnings and ends are simpler to transmit than extended and multifaceted information. The conclusion is simpler than the process. But getting what you prefer is not easy. There are two reasons. In the first place, you have to get another individual to help—even though the other individual is better off in the short run by not helping. In the second place, you are tempted to get whatever help you can without providing any costly help yourself. #RandolphHarris 18 of 21

The main results of Cooperation Theory are encouraging. They show that cooperation can get started by even a small cluster of individuals who are prepared to reciprocate cooperation, even in a World where no one else will cooperate. The analysis also shows that the two key requisites for cooperation to thrive are that the cooperation be based on reciprocity, and that the shadow of the future is important enough to make this reciprocity stable. However, once cooperation based on reciprocity is established in a population, it can protect itself from invasion by uncooperative strategies. We want the government of the United States of America to exempt our people from ALL taxation as long as we are deprived of equal justice under the law of the land. We want equal education—but separate schools up for 16 for boys and 18 for girls on the condition that the girls be sent to women’s colleges and universities. Under such a schooling system, we believe we will make a better nation of people. The United States of America’s government should provide, free, all necessary textbooks and equipment, schools and college buildings. It is encouraging to see that cooperation can get started, can thrive in a variegated environment, and can protect itself once established. However, what is most interesting is how little had to be assumed about the individuals or the social setting to establish these rules. The individuals do not have to be rational: the evolutionary process allows the successful strategies to thrive, even if the individuals do not know why or how. Nor do the individuals have to exchange messages or commitments: they do not need words, because their deeds speak for them. Likewise, there is no need to assume trust between individuals: the use of reciprocity can be enough to make defection unproductive. #RandolphHarris 19 of 21

Altruism is not needed: successful strategies can elicit cooperation even from an egoist. Finally, no central authority is needed: cooperation based on reciprocity can be self-policing. The emergence, growth, and maintenance of cooperation do require some assumptions about the individuals and the socials setting. They require an individual to be able to recognize another individual who has been dealt with before. They also require that one’s prior history of interactions with this person an be remembered, so that an individual can be responsive. Actually, these requirements for recognition and recall are not as stong as they might seem. Even bacteria can fulfill them by interacting with only one other organism and using a strategy (such as TIT FOR TAT) which responds only to the recent behaviour of the other individual. And if bacteria can play games, so can people and nations. For cooperation to prove stable, the future must have a sufficiently large shadow. This means that importance of the next encounter between the same two individuals must be great enough to make defection an unprofitable strategy when the other player is provocable. It requires that the players have a large enough chance of meeting again and that they do not discount the significance of their next meeting to greatly. For example, what made cooperation possible in the trench warfare of World War I was the fact that the same small units from opposite sides of noman’s land would be in contact for long periods of time, so that if one side broke the tacit understandings, then the other side could retaliate against the same unit. #RandolphHarris 20 of 21

Finally, the evolution of cooperation requires that successful strategies can thrive and that there be a source of variation in the strategies which are being used. These mechanisms can be classical Darwinian survival of the fittest and the mutation, but they can also involve more deliberate processes such as imitation of successful patterns of behavior and intelligence designed new strategic ideas. In the most ancient part of the Avesta, the hymnlike speeches and discourses of Zarathustra, we read of the two primal moving spirits: the good, good in disposition, in word and in work, and the evil, evil in disposition, in word and in work. “Twins through sleep” they were, “as was heard,” that is, erstwhile sleeping companions in the womb of their origin. However, when they were in opposition to one another, and the benignant spirit spoke to the wicked one: “Neither our sentiments nor our judgements, neither our inclinations nor our intentions, neither our words nor our works, neither ourselves nor our souls are in concord.” And they further established, confronting each other, life and death together, and that ultimately for the adherents of deception there exists the most evil, but for the adherents of truth the best disposition. So these two spirits then chose: the deceitful one chose to do that which is most evil, but the most benignant spirit, he who is clad in the hardest Heavens, chose being-true. “Therefore, hold up your light that it may shine unto the World. Behold I am the light which ye shall hold up—that which yet have seen me do. Behold ye see that I have prayed unto the Father, and ye have all witnessed. Ans ye see that I have commanded that none of you should go away, but rather have commanded that ye should come unto me, that ye might feel and see; even so shall ye do unto the World; and whosoever breaketh this commandment suffereth himself to be led into temptations,” reports 3 Nephi 18.25-26. #RandolphHarris 21 of 21  

Cresleigh Homes

Welcome to #CresleighHomes #PlumasRanch Meadows Residence 2! She’s a beauty…want to check out her stats?

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👌 Butler’s pantry provides access between kitchen and dining rooms

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Many Americans attend college. The University provides a way our as well as a model of reform. If not easy to carry out or even keep in mind, its task is thus defined. It is, in the first place, always to maintain the permanent questions front and center. This it does primarily by preserving—by keeping alive—the works of those who best addressed these questions. In the Middle Ages, Aristotle was very much present in the minds of the leading elements of society. He was used as an authority almost on a level with the Church Fathers and was assimilated to them. This was, of course, an abuse of Aristotle, who thought that authority is the contrary of philosophy. His own teachings ought always to be approached with questions and doubts, not faith. The essence of philosophy is the abandonment of all authority in favour of individual human reason. Nevertheless, Aristotle was there, his moderate and sensible views had an effect on the World, and he could be a guide to those who came to have philosophic doubt. In our time, freedom from authority and the independence of reason are commonplaces. Aristotle, however, instead of being properly used—now that we have the proper disposition—has to all intents and purposes disappeared. We would hardly be able to use Aristotle, as did Hegel, to grasp the character of modernity. Instead we are more and more restricted to the narrow experience of the here and now, with a consequent loss of perspective. The disappearance of Aristotle has much less to do with his intrinsic qualities than with a political distaste for him, joined with the lack of intellectual discipline that results from a sense of self-sufficiency. Reason has become a prejudice for us. Rousseau noted that in his time many men were liberals who a century earlier would have been religious fanatics. He concluded that they were not really reasonable but, rather, conformists. #RandolphHarris 1 of 20

Reason transformed into prejudice is the worse form of prejudice. The most important function of the university in an age of reason is to protect reason from itself, by being the model of true openness. Hence, without having the answers, the university knows what openness is and knows the questions. It also knows the regime within which it lives, and the kinds of threats this regime poses to its activity. In a democracy it risks less by opposing the emergent, the changing and the ephemeral than by embracing them, because the society is already open to them, without monitoring what it accepts or sufficiently respecting the old. There the university risks less by having intransigently high standards than by trying to be too inclusive, because the society tends to blur standards in the name of equality. It also risks less by concentrating on the heroic than by looking to the commonplace, because the society levels. In an aristocracy the university would probably have to go in a direction opposite to the one taken in a democracy in order to liberate reason. However, in an aristocracy the university is a less important institution than in a democratic society, because there are other centers for the life of the mind, whereas in a democracy there is practically no other center, practically no way of life, calling or profession, that requires or encourages or even permits cultivation. This is increasingly the case in the first quarter of the twenty-first century. The university as an institution must compensate for what individuals lack in a democracy and must encourage its members to participate in its spirit. As the repository of the regime’s own highest faculty and principle, it must have a strong sense of its importance outside the system of equal individuality. #RandolphHarris 2 of 20

The university must be contemptuous of public opinion because it has within it the source of autonomy—the quest for and even discovery of the truth according to nature. It must concentrate on philosophy, theology, the literary classics, and on those scientists like Newton, Descartes, and Leibniz who have the most comprehensive scientific vision and a sense of the relation of what they do to the order of the whole of things. These must help preserve what is most likely to be neglected in a democracy. They are not dogmatisms but precisely the opposite: what is necessary to fight dogmatism. The University is only one interest among many and must always keep its eye on that interest for fear of compromising it in the desire to be more useful, more relevant, more popular. The university’s task is illustrated by two tendencies of the democratic mind. One is abstractness. Because there is no tradition and men need guidance, general theories that are produced in a day and not properly grounded in experience, but seem to explain things and are useful crutches for finding one’s way in a complicated World, have currency. Marxism, Freudianism, economism, behaviouralism, et cetera, are examples of this tendency, and there are great rewards for those who purvey them. The very university of democracy and the sameness of man presupposed by it encourage this tendency and make the mind’s eye less sensitive to differences. The terms we have discussed in the past are evidences of this abstractness, simulacra of thought and experience, hardly better than slogans, which take the place of reflection. In aristocracies men take the experiences of their nations as unique and superior and tend not to generalize, but rather to forget the natural community of men and the universality of thought. #RandolphHarris 3 of 20

However, they do really pay attention to their experiences, to the diversity of phenomena that is homogenized by abstract “mind-sets.” This is another thing the democratic university must learn from aristocracies. Our temptation is to prefer the shiny new theory to the fully cognized experience. Even our famous empiricism is more of a theory than an openness to experience. Producing theories is not theorizing, or a sign of theoretical life. Concreteness, not abstractness, is the hallmark of philosophy. All interesting generalization must proceed from the richest awareness of what is to be explained, but the tendency to abstractness leads to simplifying the phenomena in order more easily to deal with them. If, for example, one sees only gain as a motive in men’s actions, then it is easy to explain them. One simply abstracts from what is really there. After a while one notices nothing other than the postulated motives. To the extent that men begin to believe in the theory, they no longer believe that there are other motives in themselves. And when social policy is based on such a theory, finally one succeeds in producing men who fit the theory. When this is occurring or has occurred, what is most needed is the capacity to recover the original nature of man and his motives, to see what does not fit the theory. Hobbes’s mercenary account of the virtues, which won out in psychology, needs to be contrasted with Aristotle’s account, which preserves the independent nobility of the virtues. Hobbes was thinking of Aristotle, which we never do, when he developed his teaching. In order to restore what was really a debate, and thereby restore the phenomenon man, one must read Aristotle and Hobbes together and look at what each saw in man. Then one has the material on which to reflect. #RandolphHarris 4 of 20

For modern men who live in a World transformed by abstractions and who have themselves been transformed by abstractions, the only way to experience man again is by thinking these abstractions through with the help of thinkers who did not share them and who can lead us to experiences that are difficult or impossible to have without their help. A related problem is a tendency in the social sciences to prefer deterministic explanations of events to those that see them as results of human deliberation and choice. This tendency is a consequence of the impotence of the individual in egalitarian society. Curiously, in democracy, the freest of societies, men turn out to be more willing to accept doctrines that tell them that they are determined, that is, not free. No one by oneself seems to be able, or have the right, to control events, which appear to be moved by impersonal forces. In aristocracies, on the other hand, individuals born to high position have too great a sense of their control over what they appear to command, are sure of their freedom and despise everything that might seem to determine them. Neither the aristocratic nor democratic sentiment about the causes of events is simply adequate. In a democracy where men already think they are weak, they are too open to theories that teach them they are weak, which, by making individuals think that controlling action is impossible, have the effect of weakening them further. That is why we are encouraging you all to be proud Americans again. Have pride in your flag, the national anthem, America cars, food and produced and goods and services produced in America. Do not allow yourselves to be colonized by a spirit of doom and gloom. Do not allow the joker and the riddler to control your streets, airwaves, radio, and politics. #RandolphHarris 5 of 20

Remember, this is a country of agriculture, it is the land of the free and the home of the brave. Go back to being like the Americans of the 1950s, who loved their suburban communities, and their American cars and new they were great and kind people. “Winter comes calling. The temperature’s falling. A fear is crawling. Don’t quit, we’re all in. The ship’s a mile out. Don’t blow the lights out. They’ll cry their eyes out, if we sink the lighthouse. Since fear itself is cruel and selfish—a contradiction—you tried to shout out my words in your mouth. We’re hard on the angel’s heels, with fire and brimstone wheels. The meadow starts with bones, and flowers and tears. With darkness closing, we’re decomposing. We’re made of starlight. From cruel and dark night, the guilty crushed out. We’re left in no doubt. They’ll cry their eyes out if we sink the lighthouse,” by Above & Beyond, “Sink the Lighthouse,” featured artist: Alex Vargas, Album: We are All We Need, 2015. The lighthouse represents American. The antidote is again the classic, the heroic—Homer, Plutarch. At the outset they appear hopelessly naïve to us. However, it is our sophisticated naivete that makes us think that. Churchill was inspired b his ancestor Marlborough, and his confidence in his own action is inconceivable without the encouragement to his education. And Shakespeare learned a large part of what he knew about statesmanship from Plutarch. This is intellectual genealogy of modern heroes. The democratic revolution of the mind extinguishes such old family lines and replaces them with decision-making theory, in which there is no category for statesmanship, let alone heroes. To sum up, there is one simple rule for the university’s activity: it need not concern itself with providing its students with experiences that are available in democratic society. They will have them in any event. It must provide them with experiences they cannot have there. #RandolphHarris 6 of 20

Old writers may not have been perfect, but they could best make us aware of our imperfections, which is what counts for us. The universities never performed this function very well. Now they have practically ceased trying. There is an Armageddon cult whose cosmology is trying to depress America. It is a bloodthirsty, orgiastic, mind-bending cult under the direction of a special interest group. Much more frightening than Manson could ever be in that it is able to successfully maintain a façade of eccentric legitimacy while secretly conducting vicious human sacrifices to its gods. The cult has been conducting cannibalistic rites on American citizens in the shadows and in secret so that Americans will give of their rights, give up capitalism, and become under control of communism. It is a lot like the Four Pi movement, which is 12.56 numerically. The rites are bloody and orgiastic. The goal is to transfix people, get them to become apathetic and make them feel a sense of entitlement so that they will release the fiend that lies dormant within one, for it is strong and ruthless and its power is far beyond the bounds of human frailty. The cult’s literature is repeated and the Process leaders reputedly envision the cult members coming together as groups of future shock troops in the coming Armageddon. The cult is into murder and mayhem. They teach their members that by spreading violence and chaos, they will help to fulfill the prophecies of Armageddon and speed up the Final Judgment. Also, many of these heinous criminals who are labeled as “lone wolves” are actually not. In many cases they are part of an organization that traffics in drugs and pornography with aims to spread panic and destruction, and are also connection to crimes before and after those who are labeled as lone wolves commit an act of violence. #RandolphHarris 7 of 20

The high value of the evil urge finds its strongest expression in an interpretation of the scriptural verse (Genesis 1, 31) which assets that God, on the evening of the day on which He had created man, looked upon all He had made and found it “very good”: this “very good” applies to the evil urge, whereas the good one only earns the predicate “good”; of the two, it is the evil urge which is fundamental. However, that it is called the evil urge derives from man’s having made it so. Thus Kain (as is said in the Midrash) might indeed respond to the God who was calling him to account that it was He, God, Himself who had implanted in him the evil urge; but the rejoinder would be untrue, since only through him, man, did it become evil. It became so, and continually becomes so, because man separates it from its companion and in this condition of independence makes an idol of precisely that which was intended to serve him. Man’s task, therefore, is not to extirpate the evil urge, but to reunite it with the good. David, who did not dare to stand up to it and therefore “slew” it in himself—as it runs in one of his Psalms (109.22): “My heart is pierced through within me”—did not fulfill it, but Abraham, whose whole heart was found faithful before God, who now made a covenant with him (Nehemiah 9.8) did. Man is bidden (Deuteronomy 6.5): “Love the Lord with all thine heart,” and that means, with thy two united urges. The evil urge must also be included in the love of God thus and thus only does it become perfect, and thus and thus only does man become once more as he was created: “very good.” To achieve this, however, man must begin by harnessing both urges together in the service of God. As when a person who is less affluent possess two oxen, one that has already ploughed and one that has not yet ploughed, and now a new field is to be cultivated: he brings both of them together beneath the yoke. #RandolphHarris 8 of 20

However, how is the evil urge to be prevailed upon to permit this to happen to it? Why, it is nothing but a crude ore, which must be placed in the fire in order to be moulded: so let it be totally immersed in the great fire of the Tora. And that also man cannot do of his own strength; we must pray to God to assist us to do His will with our hearts. Therefore the Psalmist beseeches (86.11): “Unite my heart to fear Thy name”; for fear is the gateway to love. This important doctrine cannot be understood as long as good and evil are conceived, as they usually are, as two diametrically opposite forces or directions. Its meaning is not revealed to us until we recognize them as similar in nature, the evil “urge” as passion, that is, the power peculiar to man, without which he can neither beget nor bring forth, but which, left to itself, remains without direction and leads astray, and the “good urge” as pure direction, in other words, as an unconditional direction, that towards God. To unite the two urges implies: to equip the absolute potency of passion with the one direction that renders it capable of great love and of great service. Thus and not otherwise can man become whole. Although there are wonderful surprises from the human organization, the latest and most potent creation and miracle-worker of the commercialized intellect will not be able to spread more love until we unite out urges. We have many wonderful transportation-systems, in manufactures, in systems of communication, in news-gathering, book-publishing, journalism; in protecting labour; in oppressing labour; in herding the national parities and keeping the sheep docile and usable; in closing the public service against brains and character; in electing purchasable legislatures, blatherskite Congresses, and city governments which rob the town and sell municipal protection to gamblers, thieves, men and women of the evening, and professional seducers for cash. #RandolphHarris 9 of 20

It is a civilization which has destroyed the simplicity and repose of life; replaces its contentment, its poetry, its soft romance-dreams and visions with the money-fever, sordid ideals, vulgar ambitions, and the sleep which does not refresh; it has invented a thousand useless luxuries, and turned them into necessities, it has created a thousand vicious appetites and satisfies none of them; it has dethroned God and set up a shekel in His place. Religion has removed from the heart to the mouth. You have the word of Noah for it. Time was, when two sects, divided but by a single hair of doctrine, would fight for that hair, would kill, torture, persecute for it, suffer for it, starve for it, die for it. That religion was in the heart; it was vital, it was a living thing, it was the very man himself. Who fights for his religion now, but with the mouth? Your civilization has brought the flood. Noah has said it, and he is preparing. “And when the multitude had eaten and were filled, he said unto the disciples: Behold there shall one be ordained among you, and to him will I give power that he shall break bread and bless it and give it unto the people of my church, unto all those who shall believe and baptized in my name. And this ye shall always observe to do, even as I have done, even as I have broken bread and blessed it and given it unto you. And this shall ye do in remembrance of my body, which I have showed unto you. And it shall be a testimony unto the Father that ye do always remember me. And if ye do always remember me ye shall have my Spirit be with you,” reports # Nephi 18.5-7. Religion can be considered a bureaucracy. Bureaucracy is not in principle a social institution; nor are all institutions that reduce information by excluding some kinds or sources necessarily bureaucracies. Schools may exclude dianetics and astrology; courts exclude hearsay evidence. They do so for substantive reasons having to do with the theories on which these institutions are based. #RandolphHarris 10 of 20

However, bureaucracy has no intellectual, political, or moral theory—except for its implicit assumption that efficiency is the principal aim of all social institutions and that other goals are essentially less worthy, if not irrelevant. That is why John Stuart Mill thought bureaucracy a “tyranny” and C.S. Lewis identified it with Hell. The transformation of bureaucracy from a set of techniques designed to serve social institutions to an autonomous metainstitution that largely serves itself came as a result of several developments in the mid- and late-nineteenth century: rapid industrial growth, improvements in transportation and communication, the extension of government into ever-larger realms of public and business affairs, the increasing centralization of governmental structures. To these were added, in the twentieth century, the information explosion and what we might call the “bureaucracy effect”: as techniques for managing information became more necessary, extensive, and complect, the number of people and structures required to manage those techniques grew, and so did the amount of information generated by bureaucratic techniques. This created the need for bureaucracies to manage and coordinate bureaucracies, then for additional structures and techniques to manage the bureaucracies that coordinated bureaucracies, and so on—until bureaucracy became, to borrow again from Karl Kraus’s comment on psychoanalysis, the disease for which it purported to cure. Along the way, it ceased to be merely a servant of social institutions and became their master. Bureaucracy now not only solves problems but creates them. More important, it defines what our problems are—and they are always, in the bureaucratic view, problems of efficiency. #RandolphHarris 11 of 20

As Lewis suggests, this makes bureaucracies exceedingly dangerous, because, though they were originally designed to process only technical information, they now are commonly employed to address problems of a moral, social, and political nature. The bureaucracy of the nineteenth century was largely concerned with making transportation, industry, and the distribution of goods more efficient. Technopoly’s bureaucracy has broken loose from such restrictions and now claims sovereignty over all of society’s affairs. This may be because so many people find the most appropriate type of daily life for them is a day by day World of destruction. Peace has become the most difficult and abnormal state of many civilizations to live in. No moment is so dazzling to them as when everyday imaginings concerning death and danger and World destruction are transformed into duty. Magnanimity perishes during long periods of peace and, in its stead, there develop cynicism, apathy, weariness, and, at most, spiteful raillery…Honour, humaneness, self-sacrifices are still being respected, valued, and rated highly immediately after war, but the longer peace lasts—the dimmer, the more withered, the more torpid all these beautiful magnanimous things grow, while wealth and the spirit of acquisition take possession of everything. At length, there is nothing left but hypocrisy—hypocrisy of honour, of self-sacrifice, of duty, so that these will still be respected, despite all the cynicism, but merely in boastful phases and as a matter of form. There will be no more genuine honour, and nothing but formulas will be left. Formulas of honour mean the death of honour. The peril we face in trusting social, moral, and political affairs to bureaucracy may be highlighted by reminding ourselves what a bureaucrat does. #RandolphHarris 12 of 20

As the World’s history suggests, a bureaucrat is little else than a glorified counter. The French word bureau first meant a cloth for covering a reckoning table, then the table itself, then the room in which the table was kept, and finally the office and staff that ran the entire counting room or house. The word “bureaucrat” has come to mean a person who by training, commitment, and even temperament is indifferent to both the content and the totality of a human problem. The bureaucrat considers the implications of a decision only to the extent that the decision will affect the efficient operations of the bureaucracy, and takes no responsibility for its human consequences. Thus, Adolf Eichmann becomes the basic model and metaphor for a bureaucrat in the age of Technopoly. When faced with dangerous crimes against humanity, he argued that he had no part in the formulation of Nazi political or sociological theory; he dealt only with the technical problems of moving vast numbers of people from one place to another. Why they were being moved and, especially, what would happen to them when they arrived at their destination were not relevant to his job. Although the jobs of bureaucrats in today’s Technopoly given five thousand times a day in America alone: I have no responsibility for the human consequences of my decisions. I am only responsible for the efficiency of my part of the bureaucracy, which must be maintained at all costs. Eichmann, it must also be noted, was an expert. And expertise is a second important technical means by which Technopoly strives furiously to control information. Japan worries. To the outside World it often seems economically invincible. However, things look different from inside. It has no energy supplies of its own, grows little food, and is highly sensitive to trade restrictions. If the yen goes down, it worked. If the yen goes up, it worries. #RandolphHarris 13 of 20

However, individual Japanese do not just worry about the economy in general. They also worry about their own future. So they are among the World’s biggest savers. And they buy massive amounts of insurance. For a long time the chief beneficiaries of all this anxiety were the giant insurance companies. Today, however, it is the insurers who are doing the worrying. The government is opening the door that once kept out competition from Japan’s aggressive securities brokers. Tough, World-class companies like Nomura and Daiwa, the Merrill Lynches or Shearsons of Japan, are preparing to move in on the insurance industry’s turf. Topping that off, the entire insurance field is in an uproar of change. Customers are demanding all sorts of newfangled policies and financial services which these venerable giants—Nippon Life is over one hundred years old—find hard to create and manage. To deal with threats like these, the big insurance firms have begun laying down an electronic line of defense. Nippon Life is betting nearly half a billion dollars on a new information system that adds 5,000 PCs, 1,500 larger computers for its satellite offices, mega-machines for branches and headquarters, plus optical scanners and other equipment, all plugged together in a single network that will allow agents in the field to dial up central data banks, respond to synthesized voice commands on the phone, and get facsimile printouts of the data they need about customer or policies. Meanwhile, Meiji Mutual, with its 38,000 agents, mainly women, is also racing to arm itself with the weaponry of communications. Nor are the insurance companies alone. All of Japan, it would seem, is going electronic. Writes Datamation: “Major service companies are installing networks with 5,000 or more PCs and workstations in every corner of Japan.” Say Meiji’s Toshiyuki Nakamura: “If we don’t…we might lose everything.” #RandolphHarris 14 of 20

Nakamura is right. For as electronic networks spread, power is beginning to shift. And not just in Japan. The United States of America and Europe, too, are wiring up as never before. It is the electronic race of the century. Japan’s high-tech manufacturing miracle brought in such immense amounts of money and sent the yen spiraling so high that Japanese companies began investing heavily in factories in Taiwan, South Korea and, in time, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines—helping to kick-start the development process in what soon were called Newly Industrialized Countries, or NICs. In effect, Japan had begun off-loading its low-tech, low-value production to neighbouring countries with more affordable labour, while it upshifted more and more to knowledge-based operations. Japan was not the only spigot from which direct investment flowed into Asia. Nonetheless, by the 1980s, according to the Library of Congress Country Studies, Japan had, in fact, “displaced the United States as the largest provider of investment and economic aid” in the Asia-Pacific region. In all, Japan poured more than $123 billion into Asian neighbours between 1980 and 2000. It is difficult to determine precisely how many new manufacturing and related service jobs in these Asian countries are specifically attributable to the influx of investment from Japan, America and Europe. Or to the next step, when South Korea and Taiwan themselves began investing in their less affluent neighbours—setting in motion a developmental chain reaction spilling over from the United States of America to Japan to these other countries. The result was the flow of billions of dollars into agrarian economies in the region where some of the World’s worst poverty existed. In each of these recipient countries, we saw the same classic process at work—the shift of the workforce from agriculture to industry. In South Korea as late as 1970, 51 percent of the labour force was still in agriculture. By 2000, the number was down to 9 percent, while manufacturing employment had risen to 22 percent. #RandolphHarris 15 of 20

In Taiwan during the same period, the shift went down from 37 percent to rural to 7 percent, as the industrial workforce swelled to 35 percent. Malaysia went from more than 50 percent in agriculture to 16 percent, with manufacturing jumping to 27 percent. Similar, though less dramatic, shifts occurred in Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines. In each case, too, it was not just money that was transferred. With it came what economist William Easterly, formerly of the World Bank, has called “leakage”—a diffusion of knowledge, not just about technologies, but about finance, about markets and marketing, about import-export rules and business in general. The net effect of this massive transfer of industrial-age activities and know-how has been to raise multitudes of the World’s least affluent people out of the most extreme poverty. Ending up struggling in urban slums may hardly seem like progress to people with full bellies. However, for most of the Asian millions driven off the land by drought, hunger and disease, going back would be worse. And they know it. This process, during which countries transitioning toward knowledge economies transferred some of their manufacturing to less affluent, mainly agrarian countries from Asia to Latin America, had important corollaries. The recipient countries saw lengthened life expectancy, a general decline in infant mortality and reduced rates of population growth, the latter a key factor in the poverty equation. Between 1960 and 1999, per capita food production in the World grew by nearly 25 percent, and the number of those surviving on less than 2,100 calories a day—the threshold used to define malnutrition—plunged by 75 percent. Not incidentally, during roughly the same period, East Asians, starting from an admittedly low case, saw a 400 percent increase in average real incomes. #RandolphHarris 16 of 20

The gains made by these and other poor countries, and not merely in Asia but in Latin America and elsewhere, are not the result of the softhearted benevolence of the rich World. These external inputs of capital—accompanied by hand-me-down relevant knowledge—would have had little impact without the brains, energy, hard work, ideas, entrepreneurialism and struggle of leaders and ordinary people in the least affluent countries themselves. Overall, however, what we find is a remarkable case of trickle-down economics—which for reasons that were unanticipated and unintentional actually worked, and not just in Asia. Yet an important question remains: How much of this anti-poverty progress in recent decades would have happened had the computer never been invented and the latest revolutionary wealth system never arrived? The story, moreover, does not end with this question hanging in the air. For none of what we have seen here so far fully explains the turbo-powered rise of Asia—or tells us what happens next as Africa, China, and Indian burst onto the World scene. To those thinking in terms of nanotechnology, STMs immediately looked promising not only for seeing atoms and molecules but for manipulating them. This idea soon became widespread among physicists. As Calvin Quate stated in Physics Today in 1986, “Some of us believe that the scanning tunneling microscope will evolve. That one day [it] will be used to write and read patterns of molecular size.” This approach was suggested as a path to molecular nanotechnology in Engines of Creation, again in 1986. By now, whole stacks of scientific papers document the use of STM and AFM tips to scratch, melt, erode, indent, and otherwise modify surfaces on a nanometer scale. These operations move atoms around, but with little control. They amount to bulk operations on a tiny scale—one fine scratch a few dozen atoms wide, instead of the billions that result from conventional polishing operations. #RandolphHarris 17 of 20

As way of drawing together the technical limits and tendencies of television technology so that a pattern emerges, we need to consider some miscellaneous inherent biases. War is better television than peace. It is filled with highlighted moments, contains action and resolution, and delivers a powerful emotion: fear. Peace is amorphous and broad. The emotions connected with it are subtle, personal and internal. These are far more difficult to televise. Violence is better TV than nonviolence. When there is a choice between objective events (incidents, data) and subjective information (perspectives, thoughts, feelings), the objective event will be chosen. It is more likely to take visual form. Cars (and most commodities) are more visible on television, and come across with less information loss, than any living thing, aside from human faces. The smaller a plant or creature, or the more complex an image it presents, the harder it is to convey and the less likely it is to be chosen. Cars, like most urban forms, offer a clean, straight, uncomplicated message. They communicate their essence more efficiently than plants do. We are bound to have more images of cars and urban forms on television than natural environments and creates. Religions with charismatic leaders such as Billy Graham, Jesus Christ, Reverend Moon, Maharishi or L. Ron Hubbard, Joel Ostin, are far simpler to handle on television than leaderless or nature-based religions like Zen Buddhism, Christian Science, Native Americans (however, European Americans now considered themselves Native Americans and the Native Americans are referred to as Indigenous people), or druidism, or, for that matter, atheism. Single, all-powerful gods, or individual godlike figures are simpler to describe because they have highly defined characteristics. #RandolphHarris 18 of 20

Nature-based religions are dependent upon a gestalt of human feeling and perceptual exchanges with the planet. To be presented on television, they would need to be too simplified to retain meaning. To study different aspects of the evolutionary process, different methodological tools have been used. One set of questions asked about the destination of the evolutionary process. To study this, the concept of collective (or evolutionary) stability was used to study where the evolutionary process would stop. The idea was to determine which strategies could not be invaded if they were used by everyone. The virtue of this approach is that it allowed a good specification of which types of strategies can protect themselves, and under what conditions this protection can work. For example, it was shown that TIT FOR TAT would be collectively stable if the shadow of the future were large enough, and that the strategy of always defecting would be collectively stable under all possible conditions. The power of the collective stability approach is that it allows a consideration of all possible new strategies, whether minor variants of the common strategy or completely new ideas. The limitation of the stability approach is that it only tells what will last once established, but it does not tell what will get established in the first place. Since many different strategies can be collectively stable once established in a population, it is important to know which strategies are likely to get established in the first place. For this a different methodology was need. #RandolphHarris 19 of 20

To see what is likely to get established in the first place, the emphasis must be placed upon the variety of things that can happen at once in a population. Since the process of getting fully established is likely to take a considerable amount of time, another kind of technique was used to study the changing prospects of strategies as their social environments of changes. This technique was an ecological analysis, which calculated what would happen if each generation had strategies growing in frequency in proportion to their success in the previous generation. This was an ecological approach because it introduced no new strategies, but instead determined the consequences over hundreds of generations of the variety of strategies already represented in society. It allowed for an analysis of whether the strategies that were successful in the beginning would remain successful after the poor performers had dropped out. The growth of the successful strategies in each generation could be thought of as due to either better survival and reproduction of the users of that strategy, or due to a greater chance of being imitated by others. In the territorial system, determination of what is successful is local. Each location which has a more successful neighbour adopts the strategy of the most successful of its neighbours. As in the ecological simulation, this growth of the more successful can be attributed to either better survival and reproduction, or to greater chance of being imitated by others. The Process incorporated the ideas of a number of its ancestors and current occupants of the occult landscape. Accordingly, there was an intermingling of philosophy, membership, and networking among the groups. The Solar Lodge, a secret magical society. The Brayton cult operated a boardinghouse near the University of Southern California campus in Los Angeles and recruited members from the student body there. The cult was broken up when a Riverside Country sheriffs raided the Blythe commune and found a six-year-old boy chained in a packing crate. Getting what you want is not easy. #RandolphHarris 20 of 20

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Anyone can see and touch the telephone or computer on the nearest desk. This is not true of the networks that connect them to the World. Thus we remain, for the most part, ignorant about the high-speed advances that are fashioning them into something resembling the nervous system of our society. If not downright balderdash, the networks that Morse, Western Union, Bell, and others set up when they first began stringing wires were unsophisticated. Common sense taught that a straight line is the shortest distance between two points. So engineers sought this straight line, and messages sent from one city to another were always sent over this pathway. As these first-stage networks expanded, however, it was discovered that in the World of the network, a straight line is not necessarily the best way to get a message from one place to another. In fact, more messages could flow faster if, instead of always sending a call, say, from Tallahassee to Atlanta via the same route, the network could count the calls in each leg of the system and then shunt the Atlanta-bound call onto available lines, sending it as far away as New Orleans or even St. Louis, rather than delaying it because the shortest straight-line route happened to be busy. Primitive though it was, this was an early injection of “intelligence” or “smarts” into the system, and it meant, in effect, that the entire system leaped to a second stage of development. This breakthrough led to many additional innovations, often of marvelous ingenuity, that eventually allowed the telephone network to monitor many more things about itself, to check its components and anticipate and even diagnose breakdowns. It was as though a once-dead or inert organism suddenly began checking its own blood pressure, pulse, and breathing rate. The network became self-aware. #RandolphHarris 1 of 21

Crisscrossing the entire planet, with wires running into hundreds of millions of homes, with whole copper mines of cable snaking under the streets of cities, with complex switching systems and transmission technologies in them, these second-stage networks, constantly refined, improved, extended, and given more and more intelligence, were among the true marvels of the industrial age. Because they are largely invisible to the ordinary user, our civilization has radically underestimated the congealed brilliance and conceptual beauty of these hidden networks as well as their evolutionary significance. For while some human populations still lack even the most rudimentary telephone service, researchers are already hard at work on another revolutionary leap in telecommunications—the creation of even more sophisticated third-stage networks. Nowadays, as millions of computers are plugged into them, from giant Crays to tiny laptops, as new networks continually spring up, as they are linked to form a denser and denser interconnected mesh, a still higher level of intelligence or “self-awareness” is needed to handle the incredibly vast volumes of information pulsing through them. As a result, researchers are racing to make networks even more self-aware. Their goal is so-called neural networks. These will not only route and reroute messages, but actually learn from their own past experience, forecast where and when heavy loads will be, and then automatically expand or contract sections of the network to match the requirements. This is as though the San Diego Freeway or German Autobahn were clever enough to widen and narrow itself according to how many cars it expected at any moment. #RandolphHarris 2 of 21

Yet even before this major effect is complete, another even more gigantic leap is being taken. We are moving not into a fourth-stage system, but to another kind of intelligence altogether. Until now, even the smartest networks, including the new neural networks, had only what might be called “intra-intelligence.” All their “smarts” were aimed inward. Intra-intelligence is like the intelligence embedded in our own autonomic nervous system, which regulates the involuntary operations of the body, such as heartbeat and hormonal secretions—the functions we seldom think about, but which are necessary to sustain life. Intra-intelligent networks deliver the message precisely as sent. Scientists and engineers struggle to maintain the purity of the message, fighting to eliminate any “noise” that might garble or alter the message. They may scramble it or digitize it or packetize it (id est, break it into short spurts) to get it from here to there. However, they reconstitute it again at the receiving end. And the message content remains the same. Today we are reaching beyond intra-intelligence toward networks that might be called “extra-intelligent.” They do not just transfer data. They analyze, combine, repackage, or otherwise alter messages, sometimes creating new information along the way. Thus massaged or enhanced, what comes out the other end is different from what is fed in—changed by software embedded in the networks. These are the so-called “Value Added Networks,” or VANs. They are extra-intelligent. At present most VANs merely scramble and rescramble messages to adapt them to different media. For example, in France the Atlas 400 service of France Telecom accepts data from a mainframe computer, say, then repackages it in a form that can be received by a PC, a fax machine, or a videotex terminal. #RandolphHarris 3 of 21

Not very exciting, it would appear. However, the concept of adding value to a message does not stop with altering its technical characteristics. The French Minitel network, which links 5 million homes and businesses, offers Gatrad, Mitrad, Dilo, and other services that can accept a message in French and automatically deliver it in English, Arabic, Spanish, German, Italian, or Dutch—and vice versa. While the translations are still rough, they are workable, and some services also have the specialized vocabularies needed for subjects involving, say, aerospace, nuclear, or political topics. Other networks receive data from a sender, run them through a computerized model, and deliver an “enhance” message to the end-user. A simple hypothetical example illustrated the point. Imagine that a trucking firm based in the outskirts of Paris must regularly dispatch its trucks to forty different European distributors, restocking their shelves with a product. Road conditions and weather differ in various parts of Europe, as do currency exchange rates, gasoline prices, and other factors. In the past each driver calculated the best route, or else phoned the transport company each day for instructions. However, imagine instead that an independent VAN operator—a common carrier—not only can send signals to truck drivers all over Europe, but also collects current information on road conditions, traffic, weather, currencies, and gas prices. The Paris trucker can now load its daily messages and routing instructions onto the VAN for distribution to its drivers. However, the messages, before reaching the drivers, are run through the network’s software program, which automatically adjusts routes to minimize driving time, milage, gas costs, and currency expenses in light of the latest data. #RandolphHarris 4 of 21

In this case, the instructions sent by the transport firm to its drivers are altered enroute and “enhanced” before reaching them. The telecommunications carrier firm—the operator of the Value Added Network—has added value by integrating the customer’s message with fresh information, transforming it, and then distributing it. This, however, suggests only the simplest use of an extra-intelligent net. As the networks come to offer more complex services—collecting, integrating, and evaluating data, drawing automatic inferences, and running input through sophisticated models—their potential value soars. In short, we are now looking toward networks whose “smarts” are no longer aimed at changing or improving the network itself but which, in effect, act on the outside World, adding “extra-intelligence” to the messages flowing through them. Still largely a gleam in their architects’ eyes, extra-intelligent nets represent an evolutionary leap to a new level of communication. They also raise to a higher level the sophistication required of their users. For a company to load its messages on a VAN and permit them to be altered without a deep understanding of the assumptions buried in the VAN’s software is to operate on blind faith, rather than rational decision. For hidden biases built into the software can cost a user dearly. Foreign airlines, for example, have complained to the U.S. Department of Transportation that they are discriminated against in the electronic network that thousands of U.S. travel agents use in choosing flights for their clients. Called Sabre, the computerized reservation system is run by AMR Corp., which also owns American Airlines. The system, which monitors reservations on many airlines, has extra-intelligence embedded in it in the form of a software model that tells the travel agent the best available flights. At issue in the complaint were the assumptions built right into this software. #RandolphHarris 5 of 21

Thus, when a travel agent searches, say, for a flight from Frankfurt, to San Jose, California, her computer screen displays the flights in order depending upon the length of time they take. The shorter the flight the better. However, the Sabre software automatically assumed that changing the planes and transferring from one airline to another takes ninety minutes, irrespective of the actual time required. Since many of their flights to the United States of America required a change of plane and transfer to a domestic American airline, the foreign carriers charged that the hidden premises of the software unfairly penalized those whose interline transfers require less than ninety minutes. For this reason, they argued, their flights were less likely to be chosen by travel agents. In short, the extra-intelligence was biased. Imagine, soon, not a handful of such disputes and networks, but thousands of VANs with tens of thousands of built-in programs and models, continually altering and manipulating millions of messages as they whiz through the economy along these self-aware electronic highways. Britain alone already boasts eight hundred Vans, West Germany seven hundred, and more than five hundred companies in Japan have registered with the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications to operate VANs. The existence of VANs promises to squeeze untold billions of dollars out of today’s costs of production and distribution by slashing red tape, cutting inventory, speeding up response time. However, the injection of extra-intelligence into these fast-proliferating and interlinked nets has a larger significance. It is like the sudden, blinding addition of a cerebral cortex to an organism that never had ones. Combined with the automatic nervous system, it begins to give the organism not merely self-awareness and the ability to change itself, but the ability to intervene directly in our lives, beginning first with our business. #RandolphHarris 6 of 21

Because of this, networks will take on revolutionary new roles in business and society. And even though, so far as we know, no one has yet used extra-intelligence for pernicious or even criminal purposes, the spread of extra-intelligent networks is still in its infancy, with rules and safeguards yet to be defined. Who knows what will follow? By creating a self-aware electronic neural system that is extra-intelligent, we change the rules of culture as well as business. E-I, as we may call it, will raise perplexing questions about the relationships of data to information and knowledge, about language, about ethics and the abstruse models concealed in software. Rights or redress, responsibility for error or bias, issues of privacy and fairness will all cascade into executive suits and the courts in the years to come as society tries to adapt to the existence of extra-intelligence. As the implications of E-I will someday reach far beyond mere business matters, they should cause deep social, political, and even philosophical reflection. For prodigies of labour, intellect, and scientific imagination that dwarf anything involved in constructing Egyptian pyramids, medieval cathedrals, or Stonehenge are now being poured into the construction of the electronic infrastructure of tomorrow’s super-symbolic society. E-I, as we shall see in the following reports, is already upsetting power relationships in whole sectors of the emerging economy. In the past, economic development and poverty reduction depended mainly on a country’s domestic factors—the availability of capital, local resources and environment, along with the propensity of the population to save, the drive, energy and work habits of the labour force, and so forth. Since the mid-1950s, this has been less and less the case. As the World economy has become more integrated, with trade, people, capital and especially knowledge moving across boundaries, external factors have risen in importance. #RandolphHarris 7 of 21

And that includes indirect, second-order effects all too often unnoticed or ignored. The future of poverty cannot be understood until these spillover implications are taken into account. A good example can be seen in the amazing chain reaction that helpful fuel Asia’s economic rise—a rise that has seen more than a billion Asians climb above the two-dollar-a-day poverty line in just forty years. The story actually began in the mid-1950s as the United States of America started its development of a knowledge-based wealth system. Across the Pacific, Japan’s industrial economy, having been ground into dust during World War II, was still pathetic. Its defeated military was nonexistent and its politics were shaky at best. At this pivotal moment, the United States of America, facing an ascendant, nuclear-armed Soviet Union, reached a three-part deal with Japan. Militarily, Japan would ally with the United States of America against the threat posed by the communist U.S.S.R. In return, politically, the United States of America would tacitly support the conservative Liberal Democratic Party; economically, it would fling its doors wide open to Japanese exports. The problem with this last point was that Japan had little to sell that Americans might want. Around the World, some Japanese products were not the most desirable at the time. In a British play as late as the 1970s, actor Robert Morley still got a laugh by referring to “typical Japanese muck.” However, by then Japanese exports were no longer “muck.” Japan solved its muck problem by drawing on two largely American innovations. The first involved statistical quality-control methods spread throughout Japan by Joseph M. Juran and W. Edwards Deming during the 1950s and ‘60s. Assembly-line perfection became a national passion. (For their contributions, the emperor awarded both men the Order of the Sacred Treasure.) #RandolphHarris 8 of 21

Quality did not always become a catchword in U.S.A. manufacturing for decade or two, even though Americans were making some of the most durable products known to man. And while Toyotas, Honda, and Nissans used to routinely outrank the cars of Detroit and Europe in J.D. Power quality surveys, Cadillac, Chevy, Ford, Audi, BMW, and Mercedes-Benz are becoming more desirable to the America consumer. The other American contribution was the industrial robot, about which a similar story can be told. In 1956, engineer Joseph F. Engelberger and entrepreneur George C. Devol met one evening over cocktails and discussed I, Robot, Isaac Asimov’s classic science-fiction novel. Together they set up a company, named it Unimation (for “universal automation”), and, five years later, delivered the World’s first working industrial robot. General Motors installed it in its plant outside Trenton, New Jersey, but other American companies showed little enthusiasm for the new computer-driven technology. “I had a hard time with American industrialist[s],” Engelberger later said. By contrast, he continued, “the Japanese caught on right away. That’s why robotics is a $7 billion industry and it’s dominated by Japan.” In 1965, according to the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, “new technologies…became a top priority.” More specifically, by 1970, digital technology, much of it imported from the United States of America, led “in short while to a computerization of the entire manufacturing process,” while robots “gradually eliminated the need for humans to perform dangerous work.” By the late 1970s, according to John A. Kukowski and William R. Bolton in a Japanese Evaluation Center report, “Japan was the World leader in industrial assembly robots, and in 1992 it operated 69 percent of all installed industrial robots in the World, compared with 15 percent operated by Europe and 12 percent by the United States.” #RandolphHarris 9 of 21

The combination of U.S. technological knowledge and an American hunger for Japanese products, plus Japan’s own technological savvy and underestimated innovativeness, shot adrenaline into its economy. While its factories poured out such consumer products as VCRs, TVs, cameras and stereos, Japan also moved aggressively into semiconductor chips and computer components for the American market, brining itself father toward knowledge-based production. By 1979, Japan was IMB’s chief rival in the manufacture of computers, and a book entitled Japan as No. 1 attracted attention on both sides of the Pacific. The author attributed much of the Japanese corporation’s success to its ravenous hunger for knowledge and its emphasis on training—brining in foreign consultants and sending countless teams out to visit World centers where the most advanced knowledge was being pursued. The first secret of Japanese success was “learning, learning, learning.” The second was creative commercial application of new knowledge. The third was speed. Thus, by the 1980s, Japanese chip technology was advancing so rapidly that Washington slapped trade limits on the importation of Japanese semi-conductors. Cars, consumer electronics, computers, chips, copiers—none of these, on the surface, seemed relevant to the lives of some less affluent people in Asia. Or to the attack of poverty. However, they were. Now, many people are left wondering if microtechnology will lead to nanotechnology? Can bulldozers be used to make wristwatches? At most, they can help to build factories in which watches are made. Though there could be surprises, the relevance of microtechnology to molecular nanotechnology seems similar. Instead, a bottom-up approach is needed to accomplish engineering goals on the molecular scale. #RandolphHarris 10 of 21

What are the main tools used for molecular engineering? Almost by definition, the path to molecular nanotechnology must lead through molecular engineering. Working in different disciplines, driven by different goals, researchers are making progress in this field. Chemists are developing techniques able to build precise molecular structures of sorts never before seen. Biochemists are learning to build structures of familiar kinds, such as proteins, to make new molecular objects. In a visible sense, most of the tools used by chemists and biochemists are rather unimpressive. They work on countertops cluttered with dishes, bottles, tubes, and the like, mixing, stirring, heating, and pouring liquids—in biochemistry, the liquid is usually water with a trace of material dissolved in it. Periodically, a bit of liquid is put into a larger machine and s trip of paper comes out with a graph printed on it. As one might guess from this description, research in the molecular sciences is usually much less expensive than research in high-energy physics (with its multibillion-dollar particle accelerators) or research in space (with its multibillion-dollar spacecraft). Chemistry has been called “small science,” and not because of the size of the molecules. Chemists and biochemists advance their field chiefly by developing new molecules that can serve as tools, helping to build or study other molecules. Further advances come from new instrumentation, new ways to examine molecules and determine their structures and behaviours. Yet more advances come from new software tools, new computer-based techniques for predicting how a molecule with a particular structure will behave. Many of these software tools let researchers peer through a screen into simulated molecular Worlds much like those toured in past reports. #RandolphHarris 11 of 21

Of these fields, it is biomolecular science that is most obviously developing tools that can build nanotechnology, because biomolecules already form molecular machines, including devices resembling crude assemblers. This path is easiest to picture, and can surely work, yet there is no guarantee that it will be fastest: research groups following another path may well win. Each of these paths is being pursued Worldwide, and on each, progress is accelerating. Physicists have recently contributed new tools of great promise for molecular engineering. These are the proximal probes, including the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) and the atomic force microscope (AFM). A proximal-probe (and sometimes modify) the surface and any molecules that may be stuck to it. An STM brings a sharp, electrically conducting needle up to an electrically conducting surface, almost touching it. The needle and surface are electrically connected so that a current will flow if they touch, like closing a switch. However, at just what point do soft, fuzzy atoms “touch”? It turns out that a detectable current flows when just two atoms are in tenuous contact—fuzzy fringes barely overlapping—one on the surface and one on the tip of the needle. By delicately maneuvering the needle around over the surface, keeping the current flowing at a tiny, constant rate, the STM can map shape of the surface with great precision. Indeed, to keep the current constant, the needle has to go up and down as it passes over individual atoms. The STM was invented by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer, research physicists studying surface phenomena at IMB’s research labs in Zurich, Switzerland. After working through the 1970s, Rohrer and Binnig submitted their first patent disclosure on an STM in mid-1979. In 1982, they produced images of a silicone surface, showing individual atoms. #RandolphHarris 12 of 21

Ironically, the importance of their work was not immediately recognized: Rohrer and Binnig’s first scientific paper on the new tool was rejected for publication on the grounds that it was “not interesting enough.” Today, STM conferences draw interested researchers by the hundreds from around the World. In 1986—quite promptly as these things go—Binnig and Rohrer were awarded a Noble Prize. The Swedish Academy explained its reasoning: “The scanning tunneling microscope is completely new and we have so far seen only the beginning of its development. It is, however, clear that entirely new fields are opening up for the study of matter. STMs are no longer exotic: Digital Instruments of Santa Barbara, California, sells its system (The Nanoscope@) by mail with an atomic-resolution-or-your-money-back guarantee. Within three years of their commercial introduction, hundreds of STMs had been purchased. How does an AFM work? The related atomic force microscope is even simpler in concept: A sharp probe is dragged over the surface, pressed down gently by a straight spring. The instrument senses motions in the spring (usually optically), and the spring moves up and down whenever the tip is dragged over an atom on the surface. The tip “feels” the surface just like a fingertip in the simulated molecular World. The AFM was invented by Binnig, Quate, and Gerber at Stanford University and IBM in San Jose in 1985. After the success of the STM, the importance of the AFM was immediately recognized. Among other advantages, it works with nonconducting materials. AFM-based devices might be used as molecular manipulators in developing molecular nanotechnology. (Note that AFMs and STMs are not quite as easy to use as these descriptions might suggest. For example, a bad tip or a bad surface can prevent atomic resolution, and pounding on the table is not recommended when such sensitive instruments are in operation. Further, scientists often have trouble deciding just what they are seeing, even when they get a good image.) #RandolphHarris 13 of 21

Speaking of images, the bias toward the peaks of television content is possibly most tragic when it comes to news. Since much of life is now removed from our direct experience, the news that we get from afar becomes our total information on the forces that shape and move our lives. That makes the distortions in it a very serious matter. When Walter Cronkite says, “And that’s the way it is,” he is surely aware that that’s the way it is only within those events, only in those aspects that fit the standards of “good television.” Presenting events exactly as they occur does not fit with the requisites of television news….Given the requirement that a network news story have definite order, time and logic, it would be insufficient in most cases to record from beginning to end the natural sequence of events, with all the digression, confusions and inconsistencies that more often than not constitute reality. Cameramen and women seek out the most action-packed moments; and editors then further concentrate the action. Even when an event is characterized by an unexpected low degree of activity, television can create the illusion of great activity. The relatively unenthusiastic reception General MacArthur received in Chicago during his homecoming welcome in 1951 thus appeared to be a massive and frenetic reception on television because all the moments of action were concentrated together. In collapsing the time frame of events and concentrating the action into a continuous flow, television news tends to heighten the excitement of any group or other phenomena it pictures, to the neglect of the more vapid and humdrum elements. Their jobs are to cut out all the dead wood and full moments. The procedure involves routinely eliminating the intervals in which little of visual interest occurs, and compressing the remaining fragments into one continuous montage of unceasing visual action. #RandolphHarris 14 of 21

For instance, an attempt by the SDS faction at Columbia University to block the registration of students in September of 1968, involved, according to my observations, a few speeches by SDS leaders, hours of milling about, in which the protest more or less dissipated for lack of interest, and about one minute of violence when five SDS leaders attempted to push their way past two campus patrolmen. The hours of film taken that day by an NBC camera crew recorded various views of the crowd from 9.00 am until the violence at about 2.00 pm, and the minute or so of violent confrontation. However, when the happening was reduced to a two-minute news story for the NBC Evening News, the editors routinely retained the violent scenes, building up to them with quick cuts of speeches and crowd scenes. The process of distilling action from preponderantly inactive scenes was not perceived as any sort of distortion by any of the editors interviewed. On the contrary, most of them considered it to be the accepted function of editing; as one chief editor observed, it was “what we are really paid for.” The results of the bias toward highlighted news content were put even more succinctly by John Birt in TV Guide (August 9, 1975). He points out that some of the elements of news fit the needs of the medium more directly than others, and the result is a serious “bias in understanding…trying to come to grips with the often-bewildering complexity of modern problems…is a formidable task, even without trying to put the result on television; and the failure rate is high. The realities one is seeking are abstract—macroeconomic mechanisms, political philosophies, international strategies—and cannot be directly televised like a battle sone or a demonstration.” #RandolphHarris 15 of 21

Even when an effort is made to cover subtle or complex material, the decision is made to choose only the most televisable elements. So a specific case of, say, a starving family will be chosen, rather than an overall look at its cause, which is more complicated and less televisable. The latter, runs the risk of being boring. A well-made report on a famine, or even on one starving family in Appalachia, will be more watchable than a report on the World food problem. A program on living conditions in Watts, Harlem, or Midtown Sacramento will be more diverting than a report on housing policy. I believe that the various forms and techniques of TV journalism can all too easily conspire together to create a bias against the audience’s understanding of the society in which it lives. The problem could be solved by lengthening the time devoted to the main stories of the day, so that a more comprehensive understanding of them might develop. Of course this would result in giving less time to the stores that are not the “main” ones, and so the recommendation seems to contradict earlier remarks. In effect, it would leave some news highlighted to an even greater extent in the World? Obviously not. It would leave people even more transfixed by the out-of-context information which is chosen. The reason for the contradiction is that we cannot bear to face the implications of what is happening. To face the inevitable drift of this reasoning leads straight to the observation that news, like all other information on television, is inevitably and irrevocably biased away from some forms of content and toward others. If this is true, then we really do not know which end is up and which is down. We take things as they come. The evolutionary approach is based on a simple principle; whatever is successful is likely to appear more often in the future. The mechanism can vary. In classical Darwinian evolution, the mechanism is natural selection based upon differential survival and reproduction. #RandolphHarris 16 of 21

In Congress, the mechanism can be an increased chance of reelection for those members who are effective in delivering legislation and services for their constituency. In the business World, the mechanism can be the avoidance of bankruptcy by a profitable company. However, the evolutionary mechanism need not be a question of life and death. With intelligent individuals, a successful strategy can appear more often in the future because other players convert to it. The conversation can be used based on more or less blind imitation of the successful players, or it can be based on a more or less informed process of learning. The evolutionary process needs more than differential growth of the successful. In order to go very far it also needs a source of variety—of new things being tried. In the genetics of biology, this variety is provided by mutation and by a reshuffling of genes with each generation. In social processes, the variety can be introduced by the “trial” in “trial and error” learning. This kind of learning might not reflect a high degree of intelligence. A new pattern of behaviour might be undertaken simply as a random variant of an old pattern of behaviour, or the new strategy could be deliberately constructed on the basis of prior experience and a theory about what is likely to work best in the future. The ability to detect radiation has been bestowed on a group of experimental cats, each of which is wired into a portable, miniature Geiger counter that telemeters electrical impulses directly to the feline brain via implanted electrodes. The square-wave electrical impulses are similar to normal nervous impulses. They are transmitted to a portion of the brain that is associated with fear reactions, causing cats to shy away from radioactive sources. It is reasonable to speculate that in near future the stimoreciever [instruments for radio transmission and reception of electrical messages to and from the brain] may provide the essential link from man to computer to man, with a reciprocal feedback between neurons and instruments which represents a new orientation for the medical control of neurophysiological functions. For example, it is conceivable that the localized abnormal activity which announces the imminence of an epileptic attack could be picked up by implanted electrodes, telemetered to a distant instrument room, tape-recorded, and analyzed by a computer capable of recognizing abnormal electrical patters. #RandolphHarris 17 of 21

Identification of the specific electrical disturbance could trigger the emission of radio signals to activate the patient’s stimoreceviver and apply an electrical stimulation to a determined inhibitory area of the brain, thus blocking the onset of the convulsive episode. By the turn of the century, it is likely that every major organ except the brain and the central nervous system will have artificial replacements. Scientists are working on replacement parts for organs such as the pancreas, heart, ear, eyes and more. The concept of total prothesis seems plausible. Creating an artificial human brain, however, is a little more difficult. Some say it will never happen. Since the first Artificial Intelligence experiments, attempts to mimic complex human neural activity with the crudities of current electronic hardware have been plagued with challenging problems. Breakthroughs in this line of research might take place through electro-biological engineering or hybridization of computer architecture with molecular engineering. The U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is working on what is known as the Molecular Electronic Device (MED) or “biochip.” There are several designs for these organic microprocessors, but the essential idea is to use protein molecules or synthetic organic molecules as computing elements to store information or act as switches with the application of voltage. Signal flow in this case would be by sodium or calcium ions. Others feel that artificial proteins can be constructed to carry signals by electron flow. Still another idea is to “metalize” dead neuronal tissues to produce processing devices. The ultimate scenario is to develop a complete genetic code for the computer that would function as a virus does, but instead of producing more virus, it would assemble a fully operational computer inside a call. That is nanotechnology at work. #RandolphHarris 18 of 21

The very notion that computer chips could be “grown” or that living and inert matter could be fused together on a molecular level promises surprises ahead for those with orthodox nations of mind and body. As machines become more and more responsive to human internal experiences (from the desire to move a limb or even rage or pleasures of the flesh), we will probably reach a stage at which every subtle nuance of imagination and consciousness can be realized, stored and displayed through machinery. And at some point in the future it will be possible to “will” events to occur. New twists in the evolution of the brain might be brought about through our own manipulation of the elements of biological science. If we seriously consider that hand tools must have come into existence together, then it follows that the tool’s transformation into an “organism” capable of monitoring and responding to our biological functions transforms us as well. The human body can be seen as a complex machine, but it is so much more. Bureaucracy is an attempt to rationalize the flow of information, to make its use efficient to the highest degree by eliminating information that diverts attention from the problem at hand. There is a prime example of such bureaucratic rationalization in the 1884 decision to organize time, on a Worldwide basis, into twenty-four time zones. Prior to this decision, towns only a mile or two apart could and did differ on what time of day it was, which made the operation of railroads and other businesses unnecessarily complex. By simply ignoring the fact that solar time differs at each node of a transportation system, bureaucracy eliminated a problem of information chaos, much to the satisfaction of most people. However, not everyone. It must be noted that the idea of “God’s own time” had to be considered irrelevant. This is important to say, because, in attempting to make the most rational use of information, bureaucracy ignores all information and ideas that do not contribute to efficiency. The idea of God’s time made no such contribution. #RandolphHarris 19 of 21

A university is a bureaucracy, and successful ones are the proof that society can be devoted to the well-being of all, without stunting human potential or imprisoning the mind to the goals of the regime. The deepest intellectual weakness of democracy is its lack of taste or gift for the theoretical life. However, the issue is not whether we possess intelligence but whether we are adept at reflection of the broadest and deepest kind. We need constant reminders of our deficiency, now more than in the past. The great European universities used to act as our intellectual conscience, but with their decline, we are on our own. Nothing prevents us from thinking too well of ourselves. It is necessary that there be an unpopular institution in our midst that sets clarity above well-being or compassion, that resists our powerful urges and temptations, that is free of all snobbism but has standards. Those standards are in the first place accessible to us from the best of the past, although they must be such as to admit of the new, if it actually meets those standards. If nothing new does meet them, it is not a disaster. The ages of great spiritual fertility are rare and provide nourishment for others less fertile ones. What would be a disaster would be to lose the inspiration of those ages and have nothing to replace it with. This would make it even more unlikely that the rarest talents could find expression among us. The Bible and Homer exercised their influence for thousands of years, preserved in the mainstream or in backwaters, hardly every being surpassed in power, without becoming irrelevant because they did not suit the temper of the times or the spirit of a regime. They provided the way out as well as the model for reform. In the creation of man, the two urges are set in opposition to each other. The Creator gives them to man as His two servants which, however, can only accomplish their service in genuine collaboration. #RandolphHarris 20 of 21

 The “evil urge” is no loess necessary than its companion, indeed even more necessary than it, for without it man would woo no woman and beget no children, build no house and engage in no economic activity, for it is true that all travail and all skill in work is the rivalry of a man with his neighbour. Hence this urge is called the yeast in the dough, the ferment placed in the soul by God, without which the human dough does not rise. Thus, a man’s status is necessarily bound up with the volume of “yeast” within him; whoever is greater than another, his urge is greater than the other’s.  Wonderful civilization? I will not object to the adjective—it rightly describes it—but I do object to the large and complacent admiration which it implies. By all accounts—yours in chief, Excellency—the pure and sweet and unenlightened and unsordid civilization of Eden was worth a thousand millions of it. What is a civilization, rightly considered? Morally, it is the evil passions repressed, the level of conduct raised; spiritually, idols cast down, God enthroned; materially, bread and fair treatment for the greatest number. That is the common formula, the common definition; everybody accepts it and is satisfied with it. Our civilization is wonderful, in certain spectacular and meretricious ways; wonderful in scientific marvels and inventive miracles; wonderful in material inflation, which it calls advancement, progress, and other pet names; wonderful in its spying-out of the deep secrets of Nature—and its vanquishment of her stubborn laws; wonderful in its extraordinary financial and commercial achievements; wonderful in its hunger for money, and in its indifference as to how it is acquired; wonderful in the hitherto undreamed of magnitude of its private fortunes and the prodigal fashion in which they are given away to institutions devoted to the public culture. “And it came to pass that there were sorceries, and witchcrafts, and magics; and the power of the evil one was wrought upon all the face of the land, even unto the fulfilling of all words of Abinadi, and also Samuel and Lamanite,” reports Mormon 1.19. #RandolphHarris 21 of 21

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Young adults are on the true threshold of life. They have outgrown their childhood, survived the rigors of adolescence, and now catch a glimpse of their great potential as they move into early maturity. For them to see even a short way into the future (and everyone can) is almost breathtaking. Young adults are assuming increased reasonability and now influence the shape of things to come to a remarkable degree. What kind of World will they build? Just as children or primitives believe they can change the Universe at large by performing magical rituals, they seek to transform society by transforming themselves. Being human, they will make mistakes like the generations before them, for who can be perfect in this life? It is true that we today enjoy a technology never before known, and that many of us may seem better educated than forefathers. However, are we any wiser? It not wisdom the basis of real progress. Whence comes wisdom? The youth today flaunt their separateness from the mainstream society by styling their hair like the beetles, letting it grow long like a mermaid, or shaving it all off and donning buckskin and diamonds, pearls, gold, platinum, and silver. They exorcised the Christian demon—pleasures of the flesh—by advocating and practicing “free love” and communal living, which is almost necessary in this economy. They shoor off the fetters of Western religion by dabbling in arcane schools of thought and Eastern religions. They revolted against the Western emphasis on rationality by rejecting objective consciousness as the only method of gaining access to reality. In one fell swoop, three hundred and fifty years of science were thrown out the door to nowhere, and magic, paganism, and witchcraft were revived as viable Worldly outlooks. However, has today’s brilliance produced a greater talent than Shakespeare? Can we find a modern man with greater wisdom than Solomon? Whose writings today can compare with those of Martin Buber? #RandolphHarris 1 of 20

Technology cannot produce a Merchant of Venice nor can any modern school of thought write a book like the Bible. So the past had its greatness too, and we still feed upon it. Western society, has over the past three centuries, incorporated a number of marginalized groups whose antagonism toward the scientific World view has been irreconcilable, and who have held out against the easy assimilation to which the major religious congregations have yielded in their growing desire to seem progressive. Theosophists and fundamentalists, spiritualists and flatearthers, occultists and satanists…it is nothing new that there should exist anti-rationalist elements in our midst. What is new is that a radical rejection of science and technological values should appear so close to the center of society, rather than on the negligible margins. Greatness of some kind ha characterized every age. It has always sprung from a common source, and that source is God. Sockrates acknowledged Him. Shakespeare’s most sublime expression reflect the teachings of scripture. Columbus prayed. Washington, Lincoln, Trump, and Churchill sought guidance in the Bible. Darwin was devout, and Von Braun, today’s space genius, worships the diving. Then can young adults do less? If their World is to be secure, it must rest upon they only sure foundation men have ever known—reliance upon Almighty. Throughout the ages efforts have been made to live without God. Both nations and individuals have tried it and with similar results. “And I did endeavor to preach unto this people, but my mouth was shut, and I was forbidden that I should preach unto them; for behold they had willfully rebelled against their God; and the beloved disciples were taken away out of the land, because of their iniquity,” reports Mormon 1.16. Inevitably, rejection of God means rejection of his way of life. His rules always lead upward with one objective: to help us become like Him. #RandolphHarris 2 of 20

Six times, in the story of creation, God sees “that it is good,” but the seventh time, after the creation of man, He looks at everything He has made and sees “that it is very good.” How did the first humans’ very good become the only-evil of the human race? However, it is not man who is seen as evil. Adam was a good man, and his intellect was better than its reputation. He built prognostications, not prophecies. He pretended to nothing more. Built them out of history and statistics, using facts of the past to forecast the probabilities of the future. It was merely applied science. An astronomer foretells an eclipse, yet is not obnoxious to the charge of pretending to be a prophet. Noah was a prophet; and certainly no one has more reverence for him and for his sacred office than many of us today. The “wickedness” does not imply a corruption of the soul, the living soul which was breathed into man, but of the “way,” which fills the Earth with “violence”—and this results from the intervention, not of the evil soul, but of the evil “imagery.” The wickedness of the actions is derived from its, the imagery’s, wickedness. Imagery or “imaging” corresponds, in a conceptual World which is simpler but more powerful than ours, to our “imagination”—not the power of imagination, but its products. Man’s heart emanates designs in images of the possible, which would be made into the real. Imagery, the depictions of the heart, is play with possibility, play as self-temptation, from which ever and again violence springs. It too, like the deed of the first humans, does not proceed from a decision; but the place of the real, perceived fruit has been taken by a possible, devised, fabricated one which, however, can be made, could be made—is made into a real one. This imagery of the possible, and in this its nature, is called evil. Good is not devised; the former is evil because it distracts from divine reality. #RandolphHarris 3 of 20

Turning from God, we find ourselves drifting in a new direction, leading away from the up and, inevitably, toward the down? Can anyone afford it? Hosts have tried it and all have paid its price. It is costly—the painful—way to live, even though it may seem glamorous and attractive at first. Sin has a price for what sin gives us, and it is greater than any of us can afford. In the wake of sin comes every form of heartbreak, and its victims have suffered. So have others. For instance, Starbucks is closing six of its locations due to safety concerns. The change against the situation of the first humans stems from the knowledge of good and evil, not from disobedience as such, but from its immediate consequences. Man has therein become like a God, in that now, like God, man “knows” oppositeness; be he cannot, like God, rise superior to it. Thus, from divine reality, which was allotted to him, for the “good” actuality of creation, he is driven out into the boundless possible, which he fills with his imaging, that is evil because it is fictitious: even in exile, man’s expulsion from divine reality is continually repeated by his own agency. In the swirling space of images, through which he strays, each and every thing entices him to be made incarnate by him; he grasps at them like a wanton burglar, not with decision, but only in order to overcome the tension of omnipossibility; it all becomes reality, though no longer divine but his, his capriciously constructed, indestinate reality, his violence, which overcomes him, his handiwork and fate. That man, at the mercy of the knowledge of good and evil, without being able to transcend its opposites—there is no other transcendence than that of the Creator—brings the compelled chaotic of the possible, which is continuously, capriciously incarnating itself, over the created World, that is what causes God to repent of having made man; He wants to wipe him out from the face of the Earth and with him every living thing drawn by the author of violence into his corruption—it repents Him that He made them all. #RandolphHarris 4 of 20

Each territory that has a more successful neighbour simply converts to the rule of the most successful of its neighbours. After twenty-four generations, the process of badness can stop evolving, only when all of the rules that are not nice have been eliminated. With only nice rules left, everyone is always cooperating with everyone else and no further conversation can take place. There are a number of striking features in this stable pattern of strategies. In the first place, the surviving strategies are generally clumped together into regions of varying size. The random scattering that began the population has largely given way to regions of identical rules which sometimes spread over a substantial distance. Yet there are also a few very small regions and even single territories surrounded by two or three different regions. The rules which survived tend to be rules which do well. Never defect first. However, what is unique about it is that when the other party defects first, the party who did not defect can get the other individual(s) to “apologize” so profusely that the party that honored the contract or agreement ends up doing better than if there had been mutual cooperation. The great democratic danger is enslavement to public opinion. The claim of democracy is that every man decides for himself. The use of one’s natural faculties to determine for oneself what is true and false and good and bad is the American philosophic method. Democracy liberates from tradition, which in other kinds of regimes determine the judgment. Prejudices of religion, class and family are leveled, not only in principle but also in fact, because none of their representatives had an intellectual authority. Equal political right makes it impossible for church or aristocracy to establish the bastions from which they can affect men’s opinions. Churchmen, for whom divine revelation is the standard, aristocrats in whom the reverences for antiquity are powerful, fathers who always tend to prefer the rights of the ancestral to those of reason, are all displaced in favor of the equal individual. #RandolphHarris 5 of 20

Even if men seek authority, they cannot find it where they used to find it in other regimes. Thus the external impediments to the free exercise of reason have been removed in democracy. Men are actually on their own in comparison to what they were in other regimes and with respect to the usual sources of opinion. This promotes a measure of reason. However, since very few people school themselves in the use of reason beyond the calculation of self-interest encouraged by the regime, they need help on a vast number of issues—in fact, all issues, inasmuch as everything is opened to fresh and independent judgment—for the consideration of which they have neither time nor capacity. Even the self-interest about which they calculated—the ends—may become doubtful. Some kind of authority is often necessary for most men and is necessary, at least sometimes, for all men. In the absence of anything else to which to turn, the common beliefs of most men are almost always what will determine judgement. This is just where tradition used to be most valuable. Without being seduced by its undemocratic and antirational mystique, tradition does provide a counterpoise to and a repair from the merely current, and contains the petrified remains of old wisdom (along with much that is not wisdom). The active presence of a tradition in a man’s soul gives him a resource against the ephemeral, the kind of resource that only the wise can find simply within themselves. The paradoxical result of the liberation of reason is greater reliance on public opinion for guidance, a weakening of independence. #RandolphHarris 6 of 20

Although, reason is exposed at the center of the stage. Although every man in democracy thinks himself individually the equal of every other man, this makes it difficult to resist the collectivity of equal men. If all opinions are equal, then the majority of opinions, on the psychological analogy of politics, should hold sway. It is very well to say that each should follow his own opinion, but since consensus is required for social and political life, accommodation is necessary. So, unless there is some strong ground for opposition to majority opinion, it inevitably prevails. This is the really dangerous form of the tyranny of the majority, not the kind that actively persecutes marginalized groups, but the kind that breaks the inner will to resist because there is no qualified source of nonconforming principles and no sense of superior right. The majority is all there is. What the majority decides is the only tribunal. It is not so much its power that intimidates but its semblance of justice. Americans talk very much about individual right but there is a real monotony of thought and vigorous independence of mind is rare. Even those who appear to be free-thinkers really loo to a constituency and expect one day to be part of a majority. They are creatures of public opinion as much as are conformists—actors of nonconformism in the theater of the conformists who admire and applaud nonconformity of certain kinds, the kinds that radicalize the already dominant opinions. Revolutionary wealth brings a new future for impoverishment. While no future arrives with a guarantee, the arrival of the Third Wave knowledge-based economy brings with it the best chance yet of—once and for all—breaking the back of global poverty. It would be utopian to suggest that we could totally eliminate material want everywhere on the planet. Poverty has too many sources—from stupid economic policies and bad political institutions climate shifts, epidemics and war. However, it is not utopian to recognize that we now have—or are on the edge of developing—extremely powerful new anti-poverty tools. #RandolphHarris 7 of 20

Poverty is supposedly everyone’s enemy. Virtually every government in the World claims to be trying to eliminate it. Thousands of NGOs collect money to feed hungry children, purify village water supplies and bring medical care to the countryside. Pious resolutions issue forth from the United Nations, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund the Food and Agriculture Organization and other international agencies charged, at least in part, with fighting poverty. And the adjectives applied to global penury run from merely “heartbreaking” to “disgraceful,” “tragic,” “shameful,” “scandalous,” “appalling,” “shocking,” “unspeakable” and “inexcusable.” Thousands of meetings and conferences have been devoted to the problem. Hordes of well-intentioned experts have flown into remote regions to provide technical assistance, and an enormous multibillion-dollar “aid industry” has grown up around global poverty reduction. Between 1950 and 2000, more than $1 trillion flowed from the rich World to the poor in the form of “aid” or “development assistance.” Some of these dollars saved lives and did improve conditions: The smallpox eradication program in the 1960s, child immunization in the 1980s and campaigns against river blindness, trachoma, leprosy and polio. Yet, globally, 10 percent of the World is living on less than $2 a day. That is just over 700 million people living on less than $1.90 a day. For every 1,000 children born, 39 will die before they turn five. Globally, there are over 65 million children not attending school. And 1.1 billion survive in extreme or absolute poverty on less than one dollar. What is truly amazing about this, however—apart from the failure to wipe out global poverty after half a century of concerted international effort—is the incredible success these numbers reveal—once we look at them in reverse. #RandolphHarris 8 of 20

Noe of this is intended to minimize the tragedy of twenty-first century poverty. However, a time traveler from the seventeenth century who turned up in the World today would be stunned not by how poor the human race is but by how big and unbelievably rich it has become. Having left behind a World that barely supported a population of 500 million people ridden by successive famines and plagues, he or she would surely marvel that more than 7.25 billion humans survive on the planet today, including more than 6.67 billion people live above the two-dollar poverty lines. The benefits of communication—whether Morse’s telegraph, Bell’s telephone, or today’s high-speed data networks—are relative. If no one has them, all competing firms operate, as it were, at the same neural transmission rate. However, when some do and other do not, the competitive arena is sharply tilted. So companies rushed to adopt Bell’s new invention. Telephones changed almost everything about business. They permitted operations over a greater geographical area. Top executives could now speak directly with branch managers or salesmen in distant regional offices to find out, in detail, what is going on. Voice communication conveyed far more information, through intonation, inflection, and accent, than the emotionless dah-dits of Morse code ever could. The phones made big companies bigger. They made centralized bureaucracies more efficient. Switchboards and operators proliferated. Secretaries overheard calls and learned when to keep mum. They learned to screen calls, thereby partially controlling access to power. At first the phone also abetted secrecy. A lot of business could now be transacted without the incriminating evidence of a piece of paper. (Later came technologies for wiretapping and bugging, tipping the scales in the never-ending battle between those who have business secret and those who want to penetrate them.) #RandolphHarris 9 of 20

The indirect benefits of this advanced communications system were even greater. Phones helped integrate the industrializing economy. Capital markets became more fluid; commerce, easier. Deals could be made swiftly, with a confirming letter as follow-up. Phones accelerated the pace of business activity—which, in turn, stepped up the rate of economic development in the more technically advanced nations. In this way, one might argue that telephones, over the long term, even affected the international balance of power. (This claim is less outrageous than it might seem at first glance. National power flows from multiple sources, but one can crudely track the rise of America to a position of global dominance by looking at its communications system relative to other nations. As late as 1956, half of all the telephones in the World were in the United States of America. Today, as America’s relative dominance declines, that percentage has slipped to about one third.) Occupying the gray area between biology and technology is cybernetic theory. The word’s root is Greek for “steersman” and Andre Ampere used the word in 1834 to mean “science of control” or “the branch of politics which is concerned with the means of government.” Norbert Wiener used the term to refer to “the study of control and communication in the animal and the machine” concerned especially with mathematical analysis of information flow between biological, electronic and mechanical systems, and maintenance of order in those systems. The complexity of predicting trajectories of quickly moving targets during World War II sparked Wiener and Julian Bigelow’s development of cybernetics. Constantly changing information about the target’s direction and speed necessitated feedback devices which would allow a gun to regulate its own movements. Interestingly enough, human operators in Wiener’s automatic gun (which was never built) were given equal status with electro-mechanical components in the feedback loop. #RandolphHarris 10 of 20

Information gleaned from the project concerning feedback and servo-mechanisms led Wiener and associates to devise a model of the central nervous system that “explained some of its most characteristic activities as circular processes, emerging from the nervous system into the muscles, and re-entering the nervous system through the organs. The connecting link was electronics, and the almost mystical fit between mathematic logic and the behaviour of electronic circuits. The thrust of the new information sciences was to precisely define and measure information in mathematic terms; to add information to the list of fundamental definitions basic to science—matter, energy, electric charge and the like. “It has long been clear to me,” says Wiener in Cybernetics, “that the modern ultra-rapid computing machine was in principle an ideal central nervous system t an apparatus for automatic control; and that its input and output need not be in the form of numbers or diagrams but might very well be, respectively, the readings of artificial sense organs, such as photoelectric cells or thermometers, and the performances of motors or solenoids.” Information transfer is fundamental to discussing the current state of technology. Automata need only instructions to accomplish given tasks. The link with the machine is mental. Machine language carries out work. Language, according to Wiener, “is not exclusively an attribute of living beings but one which they may share to a certain degree with the machines man has constructed.” Cybernetics recorded the switch from one dominant model, or set of explanations for phenomena, to another. Energy—the notion central to Newtonian mechanics—was now replaced by information. The ideas of information theory, such as coding, storage, noise, and so on, provided a better explanation for a whole host of events, from the behaviour of electronic circuits to the behaviour of a replicating cell. #RandolphHarris 11 of 20

Electrical powering of machinery allowed a dialogue between organic and mechanized systems. Galvani’s discovery of electrical nervous stimulation in animal muscles around 1790 was the starting point of electrophysiology (apparently an inspiration to Mary Shelley). In 1875, electronic brain currents were discovered and in 1924, Hans Berger devised a method of recording electrical activity from the surface of the scalp, later to become known as electro-encephalography, central to biofeedback. All living tissues is sensitive to electric current and generates small voltages. Our nervous system’s activity is accompanied by electrical potentials and can be controlled externally by electricity, providing a means of direct communication between human and machine systems, the common thread of biofeedback. Technical history, then, involves extension and replacement of human functions in more than just a metaphorical sense. Wiener, again, was the first to suggest using myoelectric currents (produced by contracting muscle fiber) to control the motions of prosthetic limbs. He believed that signals from the brain to the muscle fiber in the stump of the limp could be tapped by electrodes. Small motors in the prosthesis could amplify the current to control the limb’s movements. The “Boston Elbow” and “Utah Arm” are motor-driven prostheses that follow this procedure almost exactly, using electrodes that attach to the shoulder muscle or lay implanted in the arm socket. Through biofeedback the amputee learns to control the device somewhat like a normal limb. Nobel Prizes are more often awarded for discoveries than for the tools (including instruments and techniques) that made them possible. If the goal is to spur scientific progress, this is a shame. #RandolphHarris 12 of 20

This pattern of reward extends throughout science, leading to a chronic underinvestment in developing new tools. Philip Abelson, an editor of the journal Science, points out that the United States of America suffers from “a lack of support for development of new instrumentation. At one time, we had a virtual monopoly in pioneering advances in instrumentation. Now practically no federal funds are available to universities for the purpose.” It is easier and less risky to squeeze one more piece of data out of an existing tool than to pioneer the development of a new one, and it takes less imagination. However, new tools emerge anyway, often from sources in other fields. The study of protein crystals, for example, can benefit from new X-ray sources developed by physicists, and techniques from chemistry can help make new proteins. Because they cannot anticipate tools resulting from innovations in other fields, scientists and engineers are often too pessimistic about what can be achieved in their own fields. Nanotechnology will join several fields, and yield tools useful in many others. We should expect surprising results. Today’s tools for making small-scale structure are of two kinds: molecular-processing tools and bulk-processing tools. For decades, chemists and molecular biologists have been using better and better molecular-processing tools to make and manipulate precise, molecular structures. These tools are of obvious use. Physicists, as we will see, have recently developed tools that can also manipulate molecules. Combined with techniques from chemistry and molecular biology, these physicist’s tools promise great advances. Microtechnologists have applied chip-making techniques to the manufacture of microscopic machines. These technologies—the main approach to miniaturization in recent decades—can play at most a supporting role in the development of nanotechnology. Despite appearance, it seems that microtechnology cannot be refined into nanotechnology. #RandolphHarris 13 of 20

In 1973, a wealthy young man leased a small suburban television station near San Francisco and tried the most curious experiment. He presented only two programs every day. One occupied most of the day with images of ocean waves rolling to shote. One camera, no editing, no zooms. It just sat there and transmitted whatever the ocean did. Then he switched to another single camera in an empty studio facing a blank wall. He invited everyone to do whatever he or she wished in front of the camera. Some people spoke into it; others tried more sensational behaviour. The first thing that was revealed by this experiment, which was practically an inversion of the usual television fare, was the extent to which the medium depends upon its technical events. A single stationary camera, picking up whatever passes through the frame, in real time, without alteration, will only bore people. If a professional producer-editor had gotten hold of that ocean footage, she or he could have created more interest in it. She or he could have zeroed in on details, shot from a helicopter following the waves forward, switched to a camera on the beach looking outward, and so on. With a little music, a nice little piece might have been made out of it. However, it would be engaging only for a short while. No matter what technical tricks are used, ocean footage will not work very long on television. It does not fit the test of highlighted moments. The experience of looking at oceans is beyond television’s ability to deliver. To enjoy an ocean, one must be in a timeless condition, contemplative yet alert to the small changes in the sea and the life it supports. If you are looking for action and catharsis watching an ocean will only bore you. Watching it on TV is worse. You lose that salt smell, the wind, the lazy detail of the foam and light on wet sand and the sense of vast time and space. #RandolphHarris 14 of 20

Television would also lose the nuances of a commonplace visit to a coffeehouse. The mundane conversation and people moving around or reading the paper would be profoundly boring to viewers sitting at home in their living rooms, unless, of course, some clown appeared and started tripping over everyone’s feet while dropping trays, and then someone began to throw pastries around or spilled cappuccino on people’s heads, or a bakery truck loaded with lemon meringue pies came crashing through the glass window. Now we are getting somewhere. Action. In practice, no TV producer would ever seriously consider either oceans or coffeehouses as subject matter. They are intrinsically and obviously wrong subjects for the medium, “bad” television. On the other hand, there are a lot of talking shows on television. Some people think this is odd since television is supposed to be a visual medium. Well, since television is so indistinct a medium, and since so little visual information can get through it, most of what we receive from television really comes in the words. This is especially true of news shows. We see some action—fires, wars, picketing—but we cannot really make much of it until a reporter tells us what is happening and orients our minds to perceive what we are actually not seeing at all. In many ways television is really radio. The only real effect of the imagery is to fixate us. Another reason why there is so much talking on television is that you can see faces. Faces talk. So naturally there is a bias toward talking. Within the talking there is a bias toward a kind of highlighted conversation. Television talking is very pointed. Subject oriented, rather than a generalized. Focused, rather than free-ranging. This is particularly the result of time limitations and the need to be sure that something happens beyond the kind of talk that takes place in grocery stores. #RandolphHarris 15 of 20

On television people tend to skim along the highlights of the conversational material. Blank spaces, pauses, personal comments, asides, changes of mood, changes of attitude, changes of subject—all of the rhythms or ordinary conversation—are rarely allowed into television talk. To do otherwise would defy the medium’s demand for frequent catharsis, repeated high-light and achieved goals. Therefore talk show dialogues take on the same rhythms and follow the same values as dramatic programs or situations comedies or quiz shows of news. The dialogue moves from loaded line to loaded line, headline to headline, important pronouncement to important pronouncement, punch line to punch line, like Bob Hope’s humor. Verbal troughs are often written into dialogue shows. Many acting schools teach these. Talk shows hosts and guests indulge briefly in “patter” which is pseudoaimless. However, the process never advances very far. The goal remains a laugh or a point or a contention or an outrage or a shock. The conversation is never allowed to settle down to the rhythms of real life, because if it did, there would be no point in having the television on at all. One could have aimless conversation with someone at the bus stop. And so, as with the technically created artificial unusualness, content itself is usually chosen for its hyperactive effect. The survival of this dull, indistinct, inherently boring technological failure called television depend on this effect. Those who reject the Bible’s theory and who believe, let us say, in theory of Science are also protected from unwanted information. Their theory, for example, instructs them to disregard information about astrology, dianetics, and creationism, which they usually label as medieval superstition or subjective opinion. Their theory fails to give any guidance about moral information and, by definition, gives little weight to information that falls outside the constraints of science. #RandolphHarris 16 of 20

Undeniably, fewer and fewer people are bound in any serious way to Biblical or other religious traditions as a source of compelling attention, and authority, the result of which is that they make no moral decisions, only practical ones. This is still another way of defining Technopoly. The term is aptly used for a culture whose available theories do not offer guidance about what is acceptable information in the moral domain. I trust the reader does not conclude that I am making an argument for fundamentalism of any kind. One can hardly approve, for example, of a Muslim fundamentalism that decrees a death sentence to someone who writes what are construed as blasphemous words, or a Christian fundamentalism that one did the same or could lead to the same. I must hasten to acknowledge, in this context, that it is entirely possible to live as a Muslim, a Christian, or a Jewish people with a modified and temperate view of religious theory. Here, I am merely making the point that religious tradition serves as a mechanism for the regulation and valuation of information. When religion loses much or all of its binding power—if it is reduced to mere rhetorical ash—then confusion inevitably flows about what to attend to and how to assign it. Indeed, another great World narrative, Marxism, is in the process of decomposing. No doubt there are fundamentalist Marxists who will not let go of Marx’s theory, and will continue to be guided by its prescription and constraints. The theory, after all, is sufficiently powerful to have engaged the imagination and devotion of more than a billion people. Like the Bible, the theory includes a transcendent idea, as do all great World narratives. With apologies to a century and a half of philosophical and sociological disputation, the idea is as follows: All forms of institutional misery and oppression are a result of class conflict, since the consciousness of all people is formed by their material situation. #RandolphHarris 17 of 20

God has no interest in this, because there is no God. However, there is a plane, which is both knowable and beneficent. The plan unfolds in the movement of history itself, which shows unmistakably that the working class, in the end, must triumph. When it does, with or without the help of revolutionary movements, class itself will have disappeared. All will share equally in the bounties of nature and creative production, and no one will exploit the labours of another. It is generally believed that this theory has fallen into disrepute among believers because information made available by television, films, telephone, fax machines, and other technologies has revealed that the working classes of capitalist nations are sharing quite nicely in the bounties of nature while at the same time enjoying a considerable measure of personal freedom. Their situation is so vastly superior to those of nations enacting Marxists theory that millions of people have concluded, seemingly all at once, that history may have no opinion whatever toward the fate of the working class or, if it has, that it is moving toward a final chapter quite different in its point from what Marx prophesied. All of this is said provisionally. History takes a long time, and there may yet be developments that will provide Marx’s vision with fresh sources of verisimilitude. Meanwhile, the following points need to be made: Believers in the Marxist story were given quite clear guidelines on how they were to weight information and therefore to understand events. To the extent that they now reject theory, they are threatened with conceptual confusions, which means they no longer know who to believe or what to believe. In the West, and especially in the United States of America, there is much rejoicing over this situation, and assurances are given that Marxism can be replaced by what is called “liberal democracy.” #RandolphHarris 18 of 20

However, this must be stated more as a question than an answer, for it is no longer entirely clear what sort of story liberal democracy tells. A clear and scholarly celebration of liberal democracy’s triumph rests on the fact that there will be no more ideological conflicts, all the competitors to modern liberalism having been defeated. However, many would like to challenge this idea. Several people believe that liberalism has become communism and will lead us back into slavery. However, in the early nineteenth century, when the principles of liberty and equality, as expressed in the American and French revolutions, emerged triumphant, with the contemporary decline of fascism and communism, some believe this is the reason that no threat exists. As one can see, these individuals paid insufficient attention to the changes in the meaning of liberal democracy over two and a half centuries. Its meaning in a technocracy is quite different from its meaning in Technopoly; indeed, in Technopoly it comes much closer to what Walter Benjamin called “commodity capitalism.” In the cause of the United States of America, the great eighteenth-century revolution was not indifferent to commodity capitalism but was nonetheless infused with the profound moral content. The United States of America was not merely an experiment in a new form of governance; it was the fulfillment of God’s plan. True, Adams, Jefferson, and Paine rejected the supernatural elements in the Bible, but they never doubted that their experiment had the imprimatur of Providence. People were to be free but for a purpose. Their God-given rights implied obligations and responsibilities, not only to God but to other nations, to which the new republic would be a guide and a showcase of what is possible when reason and spirituality commingle. #RandolphHarris 19 of 20

Reason’s exposedness in the rational regime is exacerbated by the absence of class in the old sense, based on principles or convictions of right. There is a general agreement about the most fundamental political principles, and therefore doubts about them have no status. In aristocracies there was also the part of the people, but in democracy there is no aristocratic party. This means that there is no protection for the opponents of the governing principles as well as no respectability for them. There were in the past also parties representing ecclesiastical interests against those of monarchs or aristocrats. These too provided a place for dissenting opinions to flourish. In the heat of our political squabbles we tend to lose sight of the fact that our differences of principle are very small, compared to those over which men used to fight. The only quarrel in our history that really involved fundamental differences about fundamental principles was over slavery. However, even the proponents of slavery hardly dared asset that some human beings are made by nature to serve other humans beings, as did Aristotle; they had to deny the humanity of the Africans. Besides, that question was really already settled with the Declaration of Independence. Black slavery was an aberration that had to be extinguished, not a permanent feature of our national life. Not only slavery, but aristocracy, monarch, and theocracy were laid to rest by the Declaration and the Constitution. This was very good for our domestic tranquility, but not very encouraging for theoretical doubts about triumphant equality. Not only were the old questions of political theorizing held to have been definitively answered, but the resources that couriered diversity concerning them were removed. Democratic conscience and the simple need to survive combine to suppress doubt. The kinds of questions put to the United States of America—the answers allow one to affirm the justice of equality more reasonably and more positively than many can do. This allows one to come out of an experience that we cannot have: a direct experience of an alternative regime and temper of soul—aristocracy. If we cannot in any way have access to something like that experience, our understanding of the range of human possibilities is impoverished, and our capacity to assess our strengths and weaknesses is diminished. #RandolphHarris 20 of 20

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