Freedom characterizes human existence, and one of the greatest successes lay in planting of the free schools among Americans. The schoolhouses helped students discover apostles of human culture are Edmund Ware, Samuel Armstrong, and Erastus Cravath. These individuals characterize freedom of human existence, and help establish man’s awareness and conception of himself as an independent and separate being. The social history of man started with his emerging from a state of oneness with the natural World to an awareness of himself as an entity separate from surrounding nature and men. Yet this awareness remained very dim over long periods of history in a distracted land where wanton abuse, insolently gloating allowed people to be seized, imprisoned, and punished over and over again. Almost ever law and method ingenuity could devise was employed by the legislation to reduce human beings to serfdom,–to make them the slaves of the State, if not of individual owners. The individual continued to be closely tied to the natural and social World from which he emerged; while being partly aware of himself as a separate entity, he felt also part of the World around him. The growing process of the emergence of the individual from his original ties, a process which we may call “individuation,” seems to have reached its peak in modern history in the centuries between the Reformation and the present. In the life history of an individual, we find the same process. A child is born when it is no longer one with its mother and becomes a biological entity separate from her. Yet, while this biological separation is the beginning of individual human existence, the child remains functionally one with its mother for a considerable period. #RandolphHarris 1 of 18

To the degree to which the individual, figuratively speaking, has not yet completely severed the umbilical cord which fastens one to the outside World, one lacks freedom; but these ties give one security and a feeling of belonging and of being rooted somewhere. I wish to call these ties that exist before the process of individuation have resulted in the complete emergence of an individual “primary ties.” They are organic in the sense that they are a part of normal human development; they imply a lack of individuality, but they are give security and orientation to the individual. They are the ties that connect the child with its mother, the member of a primitive community with one’s clan and nature, or the medieval man with the Church and one’s social caste. Once the stage of complete individuation is reached and the individual is free from these primary ties, one is confronted with a new task: to orient and root oneself in the World and to find security in other ways than those which were characteristic of one’s preindividualistic existence. Freedom then has a different meaning from the one it had before this stage of evolution is reached. The comparatively sudden change from foetal into human existence and the cutting off of the umbilical cord mark the independence of the infant from the mother’s body. However, this independence is only real in the crude sense of the separation of the two bodies. In a functional sense, the infant remains part of the mother. It is fed, carried, and taken care of in every vital respect by the mother. #RandolphHarris 2 of 18

Slowly the child comes to regard the mother and other objects as entities apart from itself. One factor in this process is the neurological and the general physical development of the child, its ability to grasp objects—physically and mentally—and to master them. Through its own activity it experiences a World outside of itself. The process of individuation is furthered by that of education. This process entails a number of frustrations and prohibitions, which change the role of the mother into that of a person with different aims which conflict with the child’s wishes, and often into that of a hostile and dangerous person. The atmosphere of suppression creates in the child a feeling of powerlessness and the hostility springing from it. This antagonism, which is one part of the educational process though by no means the whole, is an important factor in sharpening the distinction between the “I” and the “thou.” A few weeks elapse after birth before the child even recognizes another person as such and is able to react with a smile, and it is not before long the child even ceases to confuse itself with the Universe. Until he or she then shows the particular kind of egocentricity typical of children, an egocentricity which does not exclude tenderness for and interest in others, since “others” are not yet definitely experiences as really separate from himself or herself. For the same reason the child’s leaning on authority in these first years has also a different meaning from the leaning on authority later on. The parents, or whoever the authority may be, are not yet regarded as being a fundamentally separate entity; they are part of the child’s Universe, and this Universe is still part of the child; submission to them, therefore, has a different quality from the kind of submission that exists once two individuals have become really separate. #RandolphHarris 3 of 18

The more the child grows and to the extent to which primary ties are cut off, the more it develops a quest for freedom and independence. However, the fate of this quest can only be fully understood if we realize the dialectic quality in this process of growing individuation. This process has two aspects: one is that the child grows stronger physically, emotionally, and mentally. In each of these spheres intensity and activity grow. At the same time, these spheres become more and more integrated. An organized structure guided by the individual’s will and reason develops. If we call this organized and integrated wholly of the personality the self, we can also say that the one side of the growing process of the individuation is the growth of self-strength. The limits of the growth of individuation and the self are set, partly by individual conditions, but essentially by social conditions. For although the differences between individuals in this respect appear to be great, every society is characterized by a certain level of individuation beyond which the normal individual cannot go. The other aspect of the process of individuation is growing aloneness. The primary ties offer security and basic unity with the World outside oneself. To the extent to which the child emerges from that World it becomes aware of being alone, of being an entity separate from all others. This separation from a World, which in comparison with one’s own individual existence is overwhelmingly strong and powerful, and often threatening and dangerous, creates a feeling of powerlessness and anxiety. #RandolphHarris 4 of 18

As long as one was an integral part of that World, unaware of the possibilities and responsibilities of individual action, one did not need to be afraid of it. When one has become an individual, one stands alone and faces the World in all its perilous and over powering aspects. Impulses arise to give up one’s individuality, to overcome the feeling of aloneness and powerlessness by completely submerging oneself in the World outside. These impulses, however, and the new ties arising from them, are not identical with the primary ties which have been cut off in the process of growth itself. Just as a child can never return to the mother’s womb physically, so it can never reverse, physically, the process of individuation. Attempts to do so necessarily assume the character of submission, in which the basic contradiction between the authority and the child who submits to it is never eliminated. Consciously the child may feel secure and satisfied, but unconsciously it realizes that the price it pays is giving up strength and the integrity of itself. Thus the result of submission is the very opposite of what it was to be: submission increases the child’s insecurity and at the same time creates hostility and rebelliousness, which is the more frightening since it is directed against the very persons on whom the child has remained—or become—dependent. However, submission is not the only way, the only one which is productive and does not end in an insoluble conflict, is that of spontaneous relationship to man and nature, a relationship that connects the individual with the World without eliminating one’s individuality. This kind of relationship—the foremost expression of which are love and productive work—are rooted in the integration and strength of the total personality and are therefore subject to the very limits that exist for the growth of the self. #RandolphHarris 5 of 18

The problem of submission and of spontaneous activity as two possible results of growing individuation will be discussed later. The dialectic process which results from growing individuation and from growing freedom of the individual are of utmost importance. The child becomes more free to develop and express its own individual self unhampered by those ties which were limiting it. However, the child also become more free from a World which gave it security and reassurance. The process of individuation is one of growing strength and integration of its individual personality, it is at the same time a process in which the original identity with others is lost and in which the original identity with others is lost and in which the child becomes more separate from them. This growing separation may result in an isolation tht has the quality of desolation and creates intense anxiety and insecurity; it may result in a new kind of closeness and a solidarity with others is the child has been able to develop the inner strength and productivity which are the premise of this new kind of relatedness to the World. If every step in the direction of separation and individuation were matched by corresponding growth of the self, the development of the child would be harmonious. This does not occur, however. While the process of individuation takes place automatically, the growth of the self is hampered for a number of individual and social reasons. The lag between these two trends results in an unbearable feeling of isolation and powerlessness, and this in its turn leads to psychic mechanisms, which later on are described as mechanisms of escape. #RandolphHarris 6 of 18

Phylogenetically, too the history of man can be characterized as a process of growing individuation and growing freedom. Man emerge from the prehuman stage by the first steps in the direction of becoming free from coercive instincts. If we understand by instinct a specific action pattern which is determined by inherited neurological structures, a clear-cut trend can be observed in the animal kingdom. The lower an animal is in the scale of development, the more are its adaptation to nature and all its activities controlled by instinctive and reflex action mechanisms. The famous social organizations of some insects are created entirely by instincts. On the other hand, the higher an animal is in the scale of development, the more flexibility of action pattern and the less completeness of structural adjustment do we find at birth. This development reaches its peak with man. He is the most helpless of all animals at birth. His adaptation to nature is based essentially on the process of learning, not on instinctual determination. Instinct is a diminishing if not a disappearing category in higher animals forms, especially the human. Human existence begins when the lack of fixation of action by instincts exceeds a certain point; when the adaptation to nature loses its coercive character; when the way to act is no longer fixed by hereditarily given mechanisms. Human existence and freedom are from the beginning inseparable. Freedom is here used not in its positive sense of “freedom to” but in its negative sense of “freedom from,” namely freedom from instinctual determination of his actions. #RandolphHarris 7 of 18

Freedom in the sense just discussed is an ambiguous gift. Man is born without the equipment for appropriate action which the animal possesses he is dependent on his parents for a longer time than any animal, and his reactions to his surroundings are less quick and less effective than the automatically regulated instinctive actions are. He goes through all the dangers and fears which this lack of instinctive equipment implies. Yet this very helplessness of man is the basis from which human development springs; man’s biological weakness is the condition of human culture. The failures of American institutions are the result of bad local agents, the inherent difficulties of the work, and national neglect. Such institutions, from their wide powers, great responsibilities, large control of moneys, and generally conspicuous position, are naturally open to repeated and bitter attack. Taxation without representation has become a rule of political life. And the result of all this is, an in nature have been, lawlessness and crime. On the tainted air broods fear. Centuries’ thought has been the raising and unveiling of that bowed human heart, and now behold a century new for the duty and the deed. The problem of the Twenty-first Century is corruption. However, the Third Wave wealth-creation system now spreading also challenges three pillars of the socialist faith. Take the question property. Form the beginning, socialists traced poverty, depressions, unemployment and the other evils of industrialism to private ownership of the means of production. They way to solve thee ills was for the workers to own the factories—through the states or through collectives. #RandolphHarris 8 of 18

Once this was accomplished, things would be different. No more competitive waste. Completely rational planning. Production for use rather than profit. Intelligent investment to drive the economy forward. The dream of abundance for all would be realized for the first time in history. In the nineteenth century when these ideas were formulated, they seemed to reflect the most advanced scientific knowledge of the time. Marxists, in fact, claimed to have gone beyond fuzzy-headed utopianism and arrived at truly “scientific socialism.” Utopians might dream of self-governing communal villages. Scientific socialists knew that in a developing smokestack society such notions were impractical. Utopians like Charles Fourier looked toward the agrarian past. Scientific socialists looked toward the agrarian past. Scientific socialist looked toward what was then the industrial future. Thus, later on, while socialist regimes experimented with cooperatives, worker-management, communes and other schemes, state ownership became the dominant form of property throughout the socialist World. Everywhere the state, not the workers, thus became the chief beneficiary of socialists revolution. Socialism failed to meet is promise to improve radically the material conditions of life. When living standards fell in the Soviet Union after the revolution, the decline was blamed, with some justification, on the effects of World War I and counterrevolution. Later the shortfalls were blamed on capitalist encirclement. Still later, on World War II. Yet forty years after the war, staples like coffee and organdies were still in short supply in Moscow. #RandolphHarris 9 of 18

Remarkably, though their number is declining, one still hears orthodox socialist around the World calling for the nationalization of industry and finance. From Brazil and Peru to South Africa and, even in the industrialized nations of the West, there remain true believers who, despite all historical evidence to the contrary still regard “public ownership” as “progressive: and resist every effort to de-nationalize or privatize the economy. It is true that today’s increasingly liberalized global economy, uncritically hailed by the great multinational corporations, is itself unstable. It is also, alas, true that liberalization does not always result in automatic “trickle down” benefits to the less affluent. Nevertheless, incontrovertible evidence proves that state-owned enterprises mistreat their employees, pollute the air, and abuse the public at least as efficiently as private enterprises. Many have become sinkholes of inefficiency, corruption and greed. Their failures frequently encourage a vast, seething illegal market that undermines the very legitimacy of the state. However, wors and most ironic of all, instead of taking the lead in technological advance as promised, nationalized enterprises as a rule are almost uniformly reactionary—the most bureaucratic, the slowest to reorganize, the least willing to adapt to changing consumer needs, the most afraid to provide information to the citizen, the last to adopt advanced technology. For more than a century, socialists and defenders of capitalism waged bitter war over public versus private property. Large numbers of men and women literally laid down their lives over this issue. What neither side imagined was a new wealth-creation system that would make virtually all their arguments obsolete.  #RandolphHarris 10 of 18

Yet this is exactly what happened. For the most important form of property is now intangible. It is super-symbolic. It is knowledge. The same knowledge can be used by many people simultaneously to create wealth and to produce still more knowledge. And unlike factories and fields, knowledge is, for all intents, inexhaustible. A second pillars in the cathedral of socialist theory was central planning. Instead of allowing the “chaos” of the marketplace to determine the economy, intelligent top-down planning would be able to concentrate resources on key sector and accelerate technological development. However, central planning depended on knowledge, and as early as the 1920s the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mise identified its lack of knowledge or, as he termed it, its “calculation problem” as the Achilles heel of socialism. How many does and what sizes should a factory in Irkutsk make? How many left-handed screws or grades of paper? What price-relationships should be set between carburetors and cucumbers? How many rubles, zlotys or yuan should be invested in each of tens of thousands of different lines and levels of production? Generations of earnest socialist planners wrestled desperately with this knowledge problem. The planners demanded ever more data and got ever more lies from the managers afraid to report shortfalls in production. They beefed up the bureaucracy. Lacking the supply-and-demand signals generated by a competitive market, they tried measuring the economy in terms of labour hours, or counting thins in terms of kind, rather than money. Later they tried econometric modeling and input-output analysis. #RandolphHarris 11 of 18

Nothing worked. The more information they had, the more complex and disorganized the economy grew. Fully three quarters of a century after the Russian Revolution, the real symbol of the U.S.S.R. was not the hammer and sickle but the consumer queue. Today, all across the socialist and ex-socialist spectrum, there is a race to introduce marker economics. Approaches vary, as do the attempts to provide a “safety net” for dislocated workers. However, it is now almost universally recognized by socialist reformers that allowing supply and demand to determine prices (at least within certain ranges) provides what the central plan could not—price signals indicating what is or is not needed and wanted in the economy. However, overlooked in the discussion among economists over the need for these signals is the fundamental change in communication pathways they imply, and the tremendous power shifts that changes in communication systems bring. The most important difference between centrally planned economies and market-driven economies is that in the first, information flowers vertically, whereas in the market, much more in formation flows horizontally and diagonally in the system with buyers and sellers exchanging information at every level This change does not merely threaten top bureaucrats in the planning ministries and in management but millions upon millions of mini-bureaucrats whose sole source of power depends on their control of information fed up the reporting channel. #RandolphHarris 12 of 18

The new wealth-creation methods require so much knowledge, so much information and communication, that they are totally out of reach of centrally planned economies. The rise of the super-symbolic economy thus collides with a second foundation of socialist orthodoxy. One area of high China-West tensions is company acquisitions. While Chinese companies, including state-owned enterprise (SOEs), are moving to acquire Western firms on an increasingly large scale, acquisitions of Chinese companies by their Western counterparts remain modest in terms of both the number of transactions and their value. In 2010, the total value of cross-border M&A transactions (announced deals) involving Chinese firms reached $80.7 billion, as opposed to $63.6 billion in 2009. The total value of deals involving European firms was $641 billion, and firms for the Americas $1.13 trillion. Greif studies groups of traders, each of whom needs to consign goods to others to sell on his behalf, and needs different partners at different times. Outside the context of trade, when we studied relationships between cattle owners and their herders, while these relationships are reasonably long lived, herder leave to marry or for other work. Therefore each owner will employ several herders over one’s lifetime. The cattle must travel to grazing grounds far from home. To supervise the hired herders and ensure they take good care of the cattle and do not steal, the owners try to maintain at least one close relative in the cattle camp. However, they also develop complex patronage or even include a large back-loaded pat in the herder’s compensation. #RandolphHarris 13 of 18

Of course the owner may then want to back out on this payment; his compliance is ensured by his reputation consideration since he will want to hire other herders in the future. Also, if the owner misbehaves, the social norms among the Orma allow the employee herders to retaliate, including shirking and even selling his cattle. Notice how the governance system uses a mixture of methods to achieve cooperation: rewards and punishments in cases of direct reciprocity, and social norms in group interactions. Studies of farmers in northern California revealed the cattle of one might encroach upon the land of another and cause damage, and different pairs may be involved in such a situation at different times. Again, attempts are made to recolve disputes bilaterally first; if that fails, the aggrieved party can spread negative gossip about the miscreant and invoke social sanctions. Even in countries where courts are believed to function well, relational contracting based on repeated interaction is used extensively. Prior information is important in assessing risk and offering credit in a new relationship. Trust builds up quickly in bilateral relationships in response to good experiences. Relational contracting works better if customers’ switching cost are high. (The intuition derived from one-shot or short-term games says that high switching costs should make the hold-up problem more serious, but in long-term ongoing relationships, worsening the outside option can lead to a better equilibrium of the game.) If it is believed that courts work well, new customers or ones with low switching costs are more likely to be offered credit. However, effectiveness of courts is irrelevant to the functioning of established relationships. #RandolphHarris 14 of 18

Sociability is more often found mixed with other types of activity than by itself. Nevertheless, there are enough concrete kinds of association for sociability alone, to justify classifying them by this separate category. Though sociability for some may be but a supplementary and entwining motived, it is just as true that for others collaboration is only an excuse for sociability. Ritual, for example, may involve as much effort as the conduct of work; and much work is ritual, a kind of pageantry, not aimed at production but at fulfilling the duty of group solidarity. In a society guided by ideals of work, sociability was not only taken as residual, properly confined to evenings and Sundays, but led to guilt and condemnation except when seen as seriously supporting group existence. To speak of funerals as recreation seems sacrilegious, yet steadily reunions and celebrations have lost their grim aspect of sacred obligation. As a result many forms of sociability are not only recognized as legitimate play, but since their release from old inhibitions, have effloresced with remarkable speed and profusion. Conversations about people, once uneasily viewed as gossip, has become something akin to friendly analysis. Dating has become fully differentiated from courtship, and can be enjoyed on both sides without serious intentions. The giving of gifts and sending of cards has grown in proportion as it has been treated as a form of expression, not merely as a requisite sign of affection. #RandolphHarris 15 of 18

Where children were once excluded from attention when families visited others, they are now favourite conversation pieces, often in their presence, and with their contribution. Just to watch them is a favorite parental joy. As with sports, one can think of family living as play. Little girls not only entertain other “mothers,” but discuss their dolls in terms of personality. And boys like their fathers speak of holding a “convention.” Conference-going within a half-dozen years has burgeoned as a new national industry, through expense accounts still exclude the family, who only dine out as honestly avowed recreation. The growth of vacations, on the other hand, is going forward on the family plan. These types of examples may serve to show the freedom and range of sociable play. This movement runs parallel with the development of serious associations as group purpose has become less confined to loyal obedience and the performance of sacred duty. Again, the believer is so acutely conscious of a “self” which one hates and loathes that one is never free from the dark shadow of self-condemnation, self-accusation or self-despair, which no appropriation of identification with Jesus Christ in death destroys; or else there is a self-confidence which continually draws the man forward into situations from which he had to retire abashed and disappointed. A spurious personality encompasses the true inner man—which few are aware is possible, but which is a sadly real thing among multitudes of the children of God. #RandolphHarris 16 of 18

On the part of the soul beset with these constant presentations to his mind of his own personality, he thinks he has a “vivid imagination,” or still more tht some of these things are visions of God, and that he is favoured of God, especially where the vision is of “great plans for God,” or wide visions of what God is going to do! Always with the believer himself as the center and special instrument of this service! Many of the plans for “great movements” (some of which have gone as far as into print) in connection with revivals have been of such a character—plans given by “revelation,” and which have resulted in gaining but the few caught by them, and no others. Of such a character has been the aftermath of a revival where men have left their regular calling and followed a will-of-the-wisp revelation of “launching out on God”—Worldwide plans conceived, and dissipated in a few months. Such deceived believers become ultra-devotional, with an excess of seal that blinds them to all things but the supernatural realm, and robs them of power wisely to meet the claims of other aspects of life. All this comes from an evil spirit’s access to the mind and imagination, through the deception of counterfeiting the presence of God. Symbols do have meaning, a meaning born and developed in the Christian experience and tradition, but they can never claim to have neatly packaged the unfathomable ground of being in tidy concepts and placed it on the shelf next to other objects. To do so is demonism. We take the symbols of revelation and explain them with the symbols of ontology. For once we cross the frontier of ultimate concern, of revelation, of religious experience, we enter a land where the only language spoken is symbolic. #RandolphHarris 17 of 18

Christianity is something ethereal and unreal. One who says “only a symbol” has completely misunderstood the meaning of symbol; one confuses symbol with sign, and ignores that a genuine symbol participates in the reality of that which it symbolizes. However, the complain of the critics cannot be so easily muffled. Granted that revelatory knowledge cannot be equated with rational knowledge, there must still be a conceptual element, a truth that enlightens our intellects. What is the content of faith, of revelation, of the Christian symbol? God is the symbol for man’s ultimate concern and the answer to the question of being. Symbolism is actually a restatement of theonomy for symbols are born in a theonomous situation by their transparency to the divine. When a person is grasped by an ultimate concern through the medium of a symbol, it means that the depths of this finite reality are opened to reveal the ground of being which sustains it. Substances shines through form, and the symbol radiates the glow of theonomy. In a perfectly theonomous culture, everything is symbolic of God. Since God is the ground of being, He is the ground of the structure of being. He is not subject to this; the structure is grounded in Him…He is the structure; that is, He has the power of determining the structure of everything that has being. The Word of God is compared to honey. It is sweet, rendering man free from the bitterness of hatred. The Word of God is compared to a wall. It protects its adherents from the violence of the wicked. The Word of God is compared to manna. It proclaims the equality of rich and poor before God. Above all, the Word of God is compared to a crown. It sets all humans above all of God’s creatures. #RandolphHarris 18 of 18

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