Power is the life pulse that sustains man in every epoch, and unless the student understands power figures and power sources one can understand nothing vital about social history. Just as the individual is obliged not to exploit the accessibility of others (else they have to pay too large a price for their obligation to be accessible), so one is obliged to release those with whom one is engaged, should it appear, through conventional cues, that they desire to be released (else they have to pay too great a price for their tact in not openly taking leave of one). A reminder of these rules of leave-taking can be found in elementary school classrooms where leave-taking practices are still being learned, as, for example, when a teacher, having called a student to her desk in order to correct one’s exercise book, may have to turn one around and gently propel one back to one’s seat in order to terminate the interview. The rights of departure owed that individual, and the rule of tactful leave-taking owed the remaining participants, can be in conflict with each other. This conflict is often resolved, in a way very characteristic of communication life, by persons active in different roles tacitly cooperating to ease leave-taking. Thus business etiquette provides the following lesson: on when to go—your exit cues are many. They range from clear-cut closing remarks, usually in the form of a “thank you for coming in,” to a vacant and preoccupied start. However, in any case they should come from the interviewer. #RandolphHarris 1 of 21

It should not be necessary for one to stand, abruptly; you should have been able to feel the good-bye in the air far enough in advance to father up your gear, slide forward to the edge of your chair and lunch into a thank-you speech of your own. Nor should it be necessary to ask that embarrassing question, “Am I taking too much of your time?”; if that thought crosses your mind, it is time to go. In fact, persons can become so accustomed to being helped out by the very person who creates the need for help, that when cooperation is not forthcoming they may find they have no way of handling the incident. Thus, some mental patients may characteristically hold a staff person in an encounter regardless of how man hints the latter provides that termination ought now to occur. As the staff person begins to walk away, the patient may follow along until the locked door is reached, and even then the patient may try to accompany one. At such times the staff person may have to hold back the patient forcibly, or precipitously tear oneself away, demonstrating not merely that the patient is being left in the lurch, but also that the staff show of concern for the patient is, in some sense, only a show. Pitchmen and street stemmers initiate a similar process; they rely on the fact that the accosted person will be willing to agree to a purchase in order not to have to face being the sort of person who walks away from an encounter without being officially released. In our society, as in others, there are institutions that pertain specifically to the privilege and duty of participating in face engagements. #RandolphHarris 2 of 21

There is, first of all, the social relationship of “acquaintanceship.” Its preconditions are satisfied when each of two individuals can personally identify the other by knowledge that distinguishes this other from everyone else, and when each acknowledges to the other that this state of mutual information exists. Once this information relationship has been established between two persons, it seems, with certain exceptions, to give rise to a social bondedness, placing both individuals on a new, typically nonterminable basis in regard to each other. Thereafter, when they come into the same social situation, they are likely to possess either a duty or a right regarding face engagement. (Should one individual forget the “face” of the other, the other need only establish the context of the original acquaintanceship-formation and one will receive engagement rights and often an apology as well.) Thus, the right to initiate face engagements is so important that it tends to get built into the relationship as one of its important ingredients. We can begin to consider the institution of acquaintanceship by specifying two of the common-sense uses of the term “recognition.” There is fist what might be called cognitive recognition, the process by which one individual “places” or identifies another, linking the sight of one with a framework of information concerning one. The identification ritual at criminal “line-ups” is one clear example; to “recognize” a man whom one was supposed to meet by something one promised to carry or wear another. #RandolphHarris 3 of 21

Typically, cognitive recognition links the person recognized to information that refers exclusively to one, such as one’s name, or a specific configuration of statuses, or a unique personal biography—in brief, one’s “personal identity.” Sometimes, however, cognitive recognition merely implies the placing of an individual in some general social category, but in a context where any member of the category can play a crucial role, as, for example, when pickpockets recognize a plainclothesman who is personally unknown to them, thereby, as the argot puts it, “making him on his merits.” Cognitive recognition, then, is the process through which we socially or personally identify the other. Second, there is “social recognition,” namely, the process of openly welcoming or at least accepting the initiation of an engagement, as when a greeting or smile is returned. Perhaps we ought to include here the according of a special role within an engagement, as when a chairman acknowledges and fulfills an individual’s desire to be given the floor. Cognitive recognition is a private act that a concealed spy can engage in, but it is difficult to engage in it without expressing that one is doing so. Social recognition is a glance specifically functioning as a ceremonial gesture of contact with someone. Now, as previously suggested, in order to carry out certain forms of social recognition it will be necessary for the participants to recognize each other cognitively, of affect having done so, or apologize for not doing so. #RandolphHarris 4 of 21

As might be expected, then, it will be possible, when two persons meet who are not well known to each other, to distinguish two types of incipient expression that can touch the face: the expression of someone immediately anticipating a social recognition from another; and the expression of someone going through the rapid cognitive process of physically recognizing or “placing” someone. These two expressions, of course, often occur simultaneously, and properly so; at other times the social recognition expression may momentarily and embarrassingly precede the other expression. Ans sometimes, when the context makes it dangerous for one person to admit that one is acquitted with the other, we find the “placing” expression without the social one, as we also do when the individual happens upon a person whom one knows about but has not met. Also, when it comes to socializing, remember that other people can be totally wrong, even when they think they are not. However, do not condemn them. It may be helpful to put yourself in that person’s place and be wise and tolerant. That is a characteristic of an exceptional person. Success in dealing with people depends on a sympathetic grasp of the other persons’ viewpoint. Cooperativeness in conversation is achieved when you show that you consider the other person’s ideas and feelings as important as your own. #RandolphHarris 5 of 21

Starting your conversation by giving the other person the purpose or direction of your conversation, governing what you say by what you would want to hear if you were the listener, and accepting his or her viewpoint will encourage the listener to have an open mind to your ideas. You cannot remember if you do not remember yourself, in this recurrence. We have lived before. Many facts prove it. The reason why we do not remember is because we did not remember ourselves. The same is true in this life. We do not really remember the things that we do mechanically, we usually only know that they happened. Only with self-remembering can we remember details. Personality is always mixed with essence. Memory is in essence, not in personality, but personality can present it quite rightly if memory is sufficiently strong. You can prepare nothing. Only remember yourself, then you will remember things better. The whole thing lies in negative emotions: we enjoy them so much that we have no interest in anything else. If you remember yourself now, then you may remember next time. “Id this reason for the ‘I have been here before’ feeling? The feeling that one has already some piece of knowledge that one could not possibly have heard?” I want facts. It may simply be a compound picture of different ideas. If you can really remember something of the kind it means you can self-remember. If you cannot self-remember, it is imagination. “Is accidental self-remembering of any use for this purpose?” Accidental self-remembering is a flash for a second. One cannot rely on it. #RandolphHarris 6 of 21

The only possibility of change begins from the possibility of beginning to remember yourself now. In the system recurrence is not necessary. It may be interesting or useful; you can even start with it, but for actual work on yourself the idea of recurrence is not necessary. That is why we have not heard it from this system; it came from outside, from literature and from me. Then you see it fits; it does not contradict. However, it is not necessary, because all that we can do, we can do only in this life. If we do not do anything in this life then the next life will be just the same, or it may be the same with slight variations but no positive change. “Can you explain why attempts at self-remembering seem to be tiring, when tried over some time?” They ought not to be. A possible explanation is that by making mental effort your unconsciously make physical effort. I think efforts to self-remember can only be tiring if there is something wrong attached. At first we are unable to remember for long at a time and it is better to remind yourself or find methods to remind you about it as often as possible. It may be tiring if you just try to keep your mind on it. That is not really self-remembering, but remembering about self-remembering. This is useful also when you begin to study, but later you must find other methods. “Any efforts to self-remember that I have made never seemed to get any deeper or on to a higher level. It seems always to be an effort to do it.” That is the thing. You must do what you can do. First try to remember yourself in the ordinary way, then in difficult moments, the moments in which you forget yourself most easily. #RandolphHarris 7 of 21

After many repetitions of that you will see that it will suddenly pass to a higher level. However, that will be without your own direct efforts. “as a man attains a higher stats of consciousness, such as self-consciousness, does the speed of one’s functions change? In other words, can one ever hope that an impression for one will be longer than one ten-thousandth of a second, a breath longer than three seconds, and so on?” It is possible for the speed of function to change. This is not similar to the length of impressions and it is useless to examine the dissimilarity. Impressions are longer now. When we speak of a ten-thousandth part of a second we refer only to an impression of the intellectual center. There are others. “If  cell could become conscious of its function s part of a man, would it forget that it was a cell? Similarly, if a man became conscious of the way tht he contributed to the life of a star, for instance, would he lose the memory of his life as a man, and disappear from the cycle of endlessly recurring lifetimes?” Quite the opposite process. A cell would remember it was a cell. The same for man—he would remember that he was a man. It would be the same as self-remembering. He would not lose memory, he would get memory. “Thinking back over one’s life one sees certain crossways where some decision was taken which one thinks was bad. Is there any particular thing one can do in this recurrence so that there is less likelihood that we shall make the same mistake in the next?” #RandolphHarris 8 of 21

Yes, certainly. One can think one can change now in these particular points, and then—if the thinking is sufficiently deep—one will remember; if it is not so deep one may remember. In any case, there is a chance that in time one will manage not to do something which one did before. Many ideas and things like that can pass through one life to another. For instance, someone asked what one could get from the idea of recurrence. If one became intellectually aware of this idea, and if the idea became part of one’s essence—part of one’s general attitude towards life—then one could no forget it, and it would be an advantage to know of it early in the next life. “Are there very definite possibilities for one man at any given moment?” People think that there are many possibilities. At any rate it looks like that, but really there is only one possibility or sometimes two. Men can only change in the sense of the sixth dimension. Things happen in a certain way and one possibility out of many supposed possibilities is realized at each moment and that makes the line of the fourth dimension. However, conscious change, for a definite purpose, which is the idea of work, the idea of development, when you seriously start in this system: that is already a start on the sixth dimension. “You say there may be two possibilities at a given moment. Do you mean one mechanical and one not?” No, there may be several mechanical possibilities because small deviations are possible, but you always come back to the line. #RandolphHarris 9 of 21

The doomsday device in the movie Dr. Strangelove consisted of large buried nuclear bombs whose explosion would emit enough radioactivity to exterminate all life on Earth. The device would be detonated automatically in the event of an attack on the Soviet Union. When President Milton Muffley of the United States of America asked if such an automatic trigger was possible, Dr. Strangelove answered: “It is not merely possible; it is essential.” The device is such a good deterrent because it makes aggression tantamount to suicide. (Apparently, Khrushchev attempted to use this strategy, threatening that Soviet rockets would fly automatically in the event of armed conflict in Berlin.) Faced with an American attack, Soviet premier Dimitri Kissov might refrain from retaliating and risking mutually assured destruction. As long as the Soviet premier has the freedom not to respond, the Americans might risk an attack. However, with the doomsday device in place, the Soviet response is automatic and the deterrent threat is credible. However, this strategic advantage does not come without a cost. There might be a small accident or unauthorized attack after which the Soviets would not want to carry out their dire threat, but have no choice as execution is out of their control. This is exactly what happened in Dr. Strangelove. #RandolphHarris 10 of 21

To reduce the consequences of errors, you want a threat that is no stronger than is necessary to deter the rival. What do you do if the action is indivisible, as a nuclear explosion surely is? You can make the threat milder by creating a risk, but not a certainty, that the dreadful event will occur. This is Thomas Schelling’s idea of brinkmanship. He explained it in his book The Strategy of Conflict: “Brinkmanship is…the deliberate creation of a recognizable risk, a risk that one does not completely control. It is the tactic of deliberately letting the situation get somewhat out of hand, just because its being out of hand may be intolerable to the other party and force his accommodation. It means harassing and intimidating an adversary by exposing him to s shared risk, or deterring him by showing that if he makes a contrary move he may disturb us so that we slip over the brink whether we want to or not, carrying him with us.” The use of brinkmanship formed the basis of the U.S.A. nuclear deterrent policy. During the cold war, the United States of America did not need to guarantee a nuclear retaliation if the Soviets invaded Europe. Even a small chance of nuclear war, say 10 percent, was enough to deter the Soviets. A 10 percent chance is one-tenth the threat and consequently required much less commitment in order to establish credibility. While the Soviets might not have believed that the United States of America would surely retaliate, they could not be sure that Americans would not either. There was always the possibility that a Soviet attack would start an escalatory cycle that got out of control. #RandolphHarris 11 of 21

Mass democracy implies the existence of “masses.” It is based on mass movements, mass political parties, and mass media. However, what happens when the mass society begins to de-massify—when movements, parties, and media all splinter? As we move to an economy based on noninterchangeable labour, in what sense can we continue to speak of the “masses”? If technology permits the customization of products, if markets are being broken into niches, if the media multiply and serve continually narrowing audiences, if even family structure and culture are becoming increasingly heterogenous, why should politics still presume the existence of homogeneous masses? All these changes—whether rising localism, resistance to globalization, ecological activism, or heightened ethnic and racial consciousness—reflect the increased social diversity of advanced economies. They point to the end of mass society. However, with de-massification, people’s needs, and therefore their political demands, diversify. Just as markers researchers in business are finding more and more differentiated segments and “micromarkets” for products, reflecting the rising variety of life styles, so politicians are bombarded by more and more diverse demands from their constituencies. While mass movements may fill the state Capitol in Sacramento, California USA or Wenceslas Square in Prague, in the high-technology nations mass movements, while still a factor, increasingly tend to fragment. Mass consensus (on all but a handful of high-priority issues) becomes harder to find. #RandolphHarris 12 of 21

The initial result, therefore, of the breakup of the mass society is a tremendous jump in the sheer complexity of politics. In terms of winning elections, the great leaders of the industrial era faced a comparatively simple task. In 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt could assemble a coalition of half a dozen groups—urban workers, poor farmers, the foreign-born, the intellectuals. With it, his Democratic Party was able to command power in Washington for a third of a century. Today an American presidential candidate must piece together a coalition composed not of four or six major blocs, but of hundreds of groupings, each with its own agenda, each changing constantly, many surviving only a matter of months or weeks. (This, not just the cost of television advertising, helps explain the rising cost of American elections.) What is emerging, as we will see, is no longer a mass democracy but a highly charged, fast-moving “mosaic democracy” that corresponds to the rise of mosaics in the economy, and operates according to its own rules. These will force us to redefine even the most fundamental of democratic assumptions. Mass democracies are designed to respond mainly to mass input—mass movements, mass political parties, mass media. They do not yet know how to cope with mosaics. This leaves them doubly vulnerable to attack by what we might call “pivotal minorities.” #RandolphHarris 13 of 21

It is ironic that in our efforts to stabilize systems against independent or correlated failures, we often transform them into more tightly coupled systems that redistribute stress. For example, we create power grids so that regions can borrow power from neighbouring regions. Local power shortages are reduces, but larger failures become possible, such as the cascade of power outages that caused the 1977 New York City blackout, or the two outages of 1996 that each affected millions of utility customers in the Western United States of America. Independent failures and correlated failures can both occur is systems whether or not the elements are connected to each other. Stress propagation failure, become possible when the elements interact naturally, or are designed to interact. Here the risk is that a failure in one element can cause stress in another element, leading to failure of that element as well. Eventually a cascade of failures could cause a large-scale failure. As we have seen as we have been discussing redistributing stress, stress propagation failures occur not only in information systems but also in many other systems that are closely coupled. In fact, advances in information systems allow more and more systems of different kinds to be designed in ways the provide efficiency through a close coupling of their elements, with attendant risk of large-scale failures. A good example is “just in time” inventory systems, which increase efficiency by reducing inventory buffers, but which also mean that a strike in a single plant can rapidly close a whole network of plants. #RandolphHarris 14 of 21

Unless the coupled structure of the situation is changes, interventions to stave off catastrophic releases can only be expected to be briefly effective. Snow fences, emergency interventions for threatened species, and efforts to control individual bad drivers on a freeway all avoid trouble only in the short run. For systems in the critical state, an event from some quarter will eventually trigger a huge chain of effects. Of course, one might be concerned mainly about what happens during the period when the preventative measure postpones a big release. The treatment of self-organized criticality does not argue that there is no postponement, only that a local intervention will provide no relief in the long run. To change the basic character of the system, short-term interventions are not effective. The relative frequency of big and small events stems from the nature of the interdependence between the elements: the stickiness of the sand or snow, the variety of other species that a given species consumes, the reaction times of freeway drivers, or the borrowing privileges of power grid regions. These linkages among the artifacts or agents are the means by which events change the probability of future events. While the design principles for systems that propagate stress are not well developed, several ideas do seem relevant. #RandolphHarris 15 of 21

First, the entire problem can be avoided if the elements of the system can be prevented from transferring stress to each other. For example, if unmet loads from failing elements were not automatically passed along to other elements, cascades of failure would be prevented. Another, related, approach is to prevent large “avalanches” by partitioning the system and preventing load transfers from elements in one part to elements in another. A third approach is to build more slack into the system so that individual elements fail less often, making cascades of a given magnitude less frequent. All these methods work at some cost in lost opportunities for load sharing or other efficiencies. However, as we saw in our data on wars, rare large events can have extremely severe consequences. For this reason, it pays to search for effective ways to reduce stress propagation at the cost of only modest reductions of efficiency. So far, our consideration of modes of failure in information systems has focused on “natural” shocks, whether they are local, correlated, or caused by the propagation of stress. We next consider shocks that are deliberately caused by attack from other agents int eh system. The most dangerous attacks are often ones that exploit some vulnerability in a surprising new way. For the attacker, surprise is frequently possible only by risking the revelation of the means of surprise. For example, using a new way of overloading a computer system might work the first time but probably not a month later. #RandolphHarris 16 of 21

Thus, anyone who has the means to surprise an opponent faces the problem of when the resource for surprise should be exploited and when it should be conserved for a time at which the stakes are higher and the surprise would be more valuable. A classic example of a resource for surprise is the British control of all the German agents in Britain in 1942. The British recognized that the German intelligence system was vulnerable due to its heavy reliance on spies. For two years, the British waited to exploit their ability to mislead the Germans, until D Day, when the stakes were very large. Their patience was amply rewarded. False information given simultaneously to all the spies produced for the Germans a correlated shock. The message from each of “their” spies reinforced the credibility of the others. The Germans fell for the grand deception and kept a large number of troops at Pas de Calais—even several days after the real attack at Normandy. There are several important implications of the fact that information systems may be attacked precisely when the stakes are very high. First, for the attacker, patience is a virtue since it may pay to exploit surprise by waiting for rare events with very large stakes. Second, for the defender, it would be a mistake to evaluate the risk of being surprised by what was seen when the stakes were low or moderate. Actual or potential opponents may be waiting for an opportunity of sufficiently large stakes to justify the exploitation of whatever resource for surprise they may have. Thus, judging the reliability of a spy, or the reliability of a crucial computer system, by its performance in a series of relatively low stakes circumstances could be quite misleading. #RandolphHarris 17 of 21

Third, when the stakes get very large, the risk of being surprised is greatest. Immunology provides some valuable insights in the resistance of a Complex Adaptive System against malevolent attacks. In the case of attacks by pathogens, the mammalian immune system is able to protect the host by distinguishing between foreign material and self. Distinctive protein patterns serve as tags that permit immune system cells to identify what is a part of the self. Experience with particular pathogens often results in immunity against further attacks of the same or similar kind. Conversely, the human populations that have been the most vulnerable to disease are those that have been isolated on continents or islands and then have suddenly become exposed to pathogens that are new to them. It has become clear through the term “computer virus” that considerations of immunity also apply to information systems. A reasonable speculation is that information systems that have been exposed to numerous attacks from hackers have had many of their weaknesses exposed and corrected. Conversely, information systems that are isolated may actually be more vulnerable to attacks if they ever do become exposed. There are two policy implications for information security. First, the effort to protect critical information systems by isolating them may actually make them more vulnerable if their isolation can not be guaranteed. #RandolphHarris 18 of 21

Second, if security is to be achieved through redundancy, it can help to have the redundant systems be as different as possible (rather than exact copies of each other) so that some system might be able to resist an attack that is fatal to the others. This second principle has played a central role in the research of our colleague Stephanie Forrest, who has worked to devise immune systems for computers as an alternative to standard approaches that vaccinate against identified threats. She has show promising results for systems that can uniquely tag their own processes so that they can distinguish self from other in order to identify attacking programs without the attackers having to be previously identified. As we are focusing on immune systems, it is also a good idea to consider new organs and limbs for humans. So far, we have seen how medical nanotechnology would be used in the simpler applications outside tissues—such as in the blood—then inside tissues, and finally inside cells. Consider how these abilities will fit together for victims of automobile and motorcycle accidents. Nnomanufactured medical devices will be of dramatic value to those who have suffered massive trauma. Take the case of a patient with a crushed or severed spinal cord high in the back or in the neck. The latest research gives hope that when such patients re treated promptly after the injury, paralysis may be at least partially avoidable, sometimes. However, those whose injuries were not treated—including virtually all of today’s patients—remain paralyzed. #RandolphHarris 19 of 21

While research continues on a variety of techniques for attempting to assist a spontaneous healing process, prospects for reversing this sort of damage using conventional medicine remain bleak. With the techniques discussed above, it will become possible to remove scar tissue and to guide cell growth so as to produce healthy arrangements of the cells on a microscopic scale. With the right molecular-scale poking and prodding of the cell nucleus, even nerve cells of the sorts found in the brain and spinal cord can be induced to divide. Where nerve cells have been destroyed, there need be no shortage of replacements. These technologies will eventually enable medicine to heal damaged spinal cords, reversing paralysis. The ability to guide cell growth and division and to direct the organization of tissues will be sufficient to regrow entire organs and limbs, not merely to repair what has been damaged. This will enable medicine to restore physical health despite the most grievous injuries. If this seems hard to believe, recall that medical advances have shocked the World before now. To those in the past, the idea of cutting people open with knives painlessly would have seemed miraculous, but surgical anesthesia is now routine. Likewise with bacterial infections and antibiotics, with the eradication of smallpox, and the vaccine for polio: each tamed a deadly terror, and each is now half-forgotten history. Our gut sense of what seems likely has little to do with what can and cannot be done by medical technology. #RandolphHarris 20 of 21

It has to do more with our habitual fears, including the fear of vain hopes. Yet what amazes one generation seems obvious and even boring to the next. The first baby born after each breakthrough grows up wondering what all the excitement was about. Besides, nano-scale medicine will not be a cure-all. Consider a fifty-year-old mentally ill man, with a mind like a two-year-old’s, or a woman with a brain tumour that has spread to the point that her personality has changed: How could they be “healed”? No healing of tissues could replace missed a lifetime of adult experience, nor can it replace lost information from a severely damaged brain. The best physicians could do would be to bring the patients to some physically healthy condition. One can wish for more, but sometimes it will not be possible. “What are some of the forms which the first conscious effort takes?” Being aware of yourself. The realization of “I am here.” However, not words. Feeling. The realization of who you are and where you are. I advise you to think chiefly about consciousness. How to approach, how to start to understand what consciousness is. We can find examples of consciousness in our own strong memory, so that if we can find moments of clear and vivid memory in the past, we can know that this is the result of being conscious. With a flash of consciousness you have very clear memories; places, time, of day, day of the week and so on. These moments of consciousness give very bright memory. #RandolphHarris 21 of 21

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